Kilimanjaro's southern and eastern slopes served as the home of theChagga Kingdoms until their abolition in 1963 byJulius Nyerere. The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is unknown, but may mean "mountain of greatness" or "unclimbable". Although described inclassical sources, German missionaryJohannes Rebmann is credited as the first European to report the mountain's existence, in 1848. After several European attempts,Hans Meyer reached Kilimanjaro's highest summit in 1889.
The mountain was incorporated intoKilimanjaro National Park in 1973. As one of theSeven Summits, Kilimanjaro is a major hiking and climbing destination. There areseven established routes to Uhuru Peak, the mountain's highest point. Although not as technically challenging as similar mountains, the prominence of Kilimanjaro poses a serious risk ofaltitude sickness.
The origin and meaning of the name Kilimanjaro is disputed. Although theChagga people of theKilimanjaro Region have no name for the mountain, they call its two peaksKipoo andKimawenze. The peaks' names—usually rendered Kibo and Mawenzi—mean "spotted" in reference to Kibo's snow and "broken top" due to Mawenzi's jagged peak. "Kilimanjaro" may originate from the Chagga calling the mountain unclimbable—kilemanjaare orkilemajyaro—and explorers misinterpreting this as its name. ThisKichagga language etymology relies onkileme, "that which defeats", orkilelema, "that which has become difficult or impossible". The-jaro could be derived fromnjaare, a bird, orjyaro, acaravan.[5]
Early Western etymologies used a compoundSwahili origin, withkilima translated as "mountain".[5] In 1860,Johann Ludwig Krapf wrote that theSwahilis used the name Kilimanjaro and that it meant either "mountain of greatness" or "mountain of caravans", with a translation ofnjaro as greatness orjaro as "caravans".[5][6] In 1885, Scottish explorerJoseph Thomson reported "white mountain" as an alternative, withnjaro denoting whiteness.[5][7] This Swahili etymological approach is criticized askilima is adiminutive ofmlima (mountain) and actually means "hill". However,mlima may have been misreported askilima via conflation with the two peaks' names,Kipoo andKimawenze.[5]
Krapf mentions an 1849 visit with aWakamba chief that called the mountainKima jajeu, meaning "mountain of whiteness".[5][8] Another explanation is thatjyaro may refer to a god or a deity that guarded the mountain from trespassers.[5]
In the 1880s, the mountain became part ofGerman East Africa and was calledKilima-Ndscharo in German.[9] In 1889,Hans Meyer reached the highest summit on Kibo, which he namedKaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze forKaiser Wilhelm.[10] Following theZanzibar Revolution and the formation ofTanzania in 1964, the summit was renamed Uhuru Peak: "Freedom Peak" in Swahili.[11][12]
Kilimanjaro's main peaks are Kibo (left) and Mawenzi (right), as named by theChagga. They respectively mean "spotted" and "broken top".
The two highest volcanic cones: Kibo (top) and Mawenzi (bottom)
Kilimanjaro is a large dormantstratovolcano composed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo, the highest; Mawenzi at 5,149 m (16,893 ft);[13] and Shira, the lowest at 4,005 m (13,140 ft).[14] Mawenzi and Shira areextinct, while Kibo isdormant and could erupt again.[15]
A map of the Kibo cone on Mount Kilimanjaro was published by the British government'sDirectorate of Overseas Surveys (DOS) in 1964 based on aerial photography conducted in 1962 as the "Subset of Kilimanjaro, East Africa (Tanganyika) Series Y742, Sheet 56/2, D.O.S. 422 1964, Edition 1, Scale 1:50,000".[18] Tourist mapping was first published by theOrdnance Survey in England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping at a scale of 1:100,000, with 100 ft (30 m) contour intervals, as DOS 522.[19] West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990, at a scale of 1:75,000, with 100 m (330 ft) contour intervals; it included inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and with 50 m (160 ft) contour intervals.[19] In recent years, numerous other maps have become available, of various qualities.[2]
The volcanic interior of Kilimanjaro is poorly known because there has not been any significant erosion to expose theigneous strata that comprise the volcano's structure.[20]
Eruptive activity at the Shira center commenced about 2.5 million years ago, with the last important phase occurring about 1.9 million years ago, just before the northern part of the edifice collapsed.[15] Shira is topped by a broadhigh plain at 3,800 m (12,500 ft), which may be a filledcaldera. The remnant caldera rim has been degraded deeply by erosion. Before the caldera formed and erosion began, Shira might have been between 4,900 and 5,200 m (16,100 and 17,100 ft) high. It is mostly composed of basaltic lavas, with somepyroclastics.[21] The formation of the caldera was accompanied by lava emanating fromring fractures, but there was no large-scaleexplosive activity. Two cones formed subsequently, thephonolitic one at the northwest end of the ridge and thedoleritic Platzkegel in the caldera center.[15][20][22][23]
Both Mawenzi and Kibo began erupting about 1 million years ago.[15] They are separated by the Saddle Plateau at 4,400 m (14,400 ft) elevation.[24]: 3
The youngest dated rocks at Mawenzi are about 448,000 years old.[15] Mawenzi forms a horseshoe-shaped ridge withpinnacles and ridges opening to the northeast, with a tower-like shape resulting from deep erosion and amaficdike swarm. Several largecirques cut into the ring and the largest of these sits on top of the Great Barranco gorge. Also notable are the East and West Barrancos on the northeastern side of the mountain. Most of the eastern side of the mountain has been removed by erosion. Mawenzi has asubsidiary peak, Neumann Tower, 4,425 m (14,518 ft).[15][20][23]
Kilimanjaro in March 2012
Kibo is the largest cone on the mountain and is more than 24 km (15 mi) wide at the Saddle Plateau altitude. The last activity here, dated to 150,000–200,000 years ago, created the current Kibo summit crater. Kibo still has gas-emittingfumaroles in its crater.[15][20][23] Kibo is capped by an almost symmetrical cone withescarpments rising 180 to 200 m (590 to 660 ft) on the south side. These escarpments define a 2.5 km-wide (1.6-mile) caldera[25] caused by the collapse of the summit.
Within this caldera is the Inner Cone and within the crater of the Inner Cone is the Reusch Crater, which the Tanganyika government in 1954 named after Gustav Otto Richard Reusch, upon his climbing the mountain for the 25th time (out of 65 attempts during his lifetime).[26][27] The Ash Pit, 350 m (1,150 ft) deep, lies within the Reusch Crater.[28] About 100,000 years ago, part of Kibo's crater rim collapsed, creating the area known as theWestern Breach and the Great Barranco.[29]
An almost continuous layer of lava buries most older geological features, except exposedstrata within the Great West Notch and the Kibo Barranco. The former exposes intrusions ofsyenite.[20] Kibo has five main lava formations:[15]
Tephriphonolite to phonolite lavas "characterized by rhomb mega-phenocrysts of sodic feldspars" of the Rhomb Porphyry group, dated to 460,000–360,000 years ago.
Aphyric phonolite lavas, "commonly underlain by basal obsidian horizons", of the Lent group, dated to 359,000–337,000 years ago
Porphyritic tephriphonolite to phonolite lavas of the Caldera Rim group, dated to 274,000–170,000 years ago
Phonolite lava flows withaegirinephenocrysts, of the Inner Crater group, which represents the last volcanic activity on Kibo
Kibo has more than 250parasitic cones on its northwest and southeast flanks that were formed between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago[15] and eruptedpicrobasalts,trachybasalts,ankaramites, andbasanites.[15][20][23] They reach as far asLake Chala andTaveta in the southeast and the Lengurumani Plain in the northwest. Most of these cones are well preserved, except the Saddle Plateau cones which were heavily affected by glacial action. Despite their mostly small size, lava from the cones has obscured large portions of the mountain. The Saddle Plateau cones are mostly cinder cones with terminal effusion of lava, while the Upper Rombo Zone cones mostly generated lava flows. All Saddle Plateau cones predate the last glaciation.[20]
According to reports gathered in the 19th century from theMaasai, Lake Chala on Kibo's eastern flank was the site of a village that was destroyed by an eruption.[30]
Kibo's ice cap exists because Kilimanjaro is a little-dissected, massive mountain that rises above thesnow line. The cap is divergent and at the edges splits into individual glaciers. The central portion of the ice cap is interrupted by the presence of the Kibo crater.[24]: 5 The summit glaciers and ice fields do not display significant horizontal movements because their low thickness precludes major deformation.[31]
Geological evidence shows five successive glacial episodes during theQuaternary period, namely First (500,000BP), Second (greater than 360,000 years ago to 240,000 BP), Third (150,000 to 120,000 BP), Fourth (also known as "Main") (20,000 to 17,000 BP), and Little (16,000 to 14,000 BP). The Third may have been the most extensive, and the Little appears to be statistically indistinguishable from the Fourth.[32]
A continuous ice cap covering approximately 400 km2 (150 sq mi) down to an elevation of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) covered Kilimanjaro during theLast Glacial Maximum in thePleistocene epoch (the Main glacial episode), extending across the summits of Kibo and Mawenzi.[14][25] Because of the exceptionally prolonged dry conditions during the subsequentYounger Dryasstadial, the ice fields on Kilimanjaro may have become extinct around 11,500 years BP.[31]Ice cores taken from Kilimanjaro's Northern Ice Field (NIF) indicates that the glaciers there have a basal age of about 11,700 years,[33] although an analysis of ice taken in 2011 from exposed vertical cliffs in the NIF supports an age extending only to 800 years BP.[34]Higher precipitation rates at the beginning of theHolocene epoch (11,500 years BP) allowed the ice cap to reform.[31] The glaciers survived a widespread drought during a three century period beginning around 4,000 years BP.[31][35]
Vertical margin wall of theRebmann Glacier in 2005 withMount Meru, which is 70 km (43 mi) away, in the background
In the late 1880s, the summit of Kibo was completely covered by an ice cap about 20 km2 (7.7 sq mi) in extent with outlet glaciers cascading down the western and southern slopes, and except for the inner cone, the entire caldera was buried. Glacier ice also flowed through the Western Breach.[14][25] The slope glaciers retreated rapidly between 1912 and 1953, in response to a sudden shift in climate at the end of the 19th century that made them "drastically out of equilibrium", and more slowly thereafter. Their continuing demise indicates they are still out of equilibrium in response to a constant change in climate over the past century.[14]
In contrast to the persistent slope glaciers, the glaciers on Kilimanjaro's crater plateau have appeared and disappeared repeatedly during the Holocene epoch, with each cycle lasting a few hundred years.[36]: 1088 It appears that decreasing specific humidity instead of temperature changes has caused the shrinkage of the slope glaciers since the late 19th century. No clear warming trend at the elevation of those glaciers occurred between 1948 and 2005. Although air temperatures at that elevation are always below freezing, solar radiation causes melting on vertical faces. Vertical ice margin walls are a unique characteristic of the summit glaciers and a major place of the shrinkage of the glaciers. They manifest stratifications,calving, and other ice features.[37] "There is no pathway for the plateau glaciers other than to continuously retreat once their vertical margins are exposed to solar radiation."[14] The Kilimanjaro glaciers have been used for deriving ice core records, including two from the southern icefield. Based on this data, this icefield formed between 1,250 and 1,450 years BP.[38]
A vertical glacier margin wall as seen from Gilman's Point on the crater rim at sunrise in 1998
Almost 85 percent of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared between October 1912 and June 2011, with coverage decreasing from 11.40 km2 (4.40 sq mi) to <1 km2 (0.39 sq mi)[39][40]: 423 Between 1912 and 1953, there was about a 1.1 percent average annual loss of ice coverage.[35] The average annual loss for 1953 to 1989 was 1.4 percent, while the loss rate for 1989 to 2007 was 2.5 percent.[35] Of the ice cover still present in 2000, almost 40 percent had disappeared by 2011.[40]: 425 Ice climber Will Gadd noticed differences between his 2014 and 2020 climbs.[41] The glaciers are thinning in addition to losing areal coverage,[35] and do not have active accumulation zones; retreat occurs on all glacier surfaces. Loss of glacier mass is caused by both melting andsublimation.[31] While the current shrinking and thinning of Kilimanjaro's ice fields appear to be unique within its almost twelve-millennium history, it is contemporaneous with widespreadglacier retreat in mid-to-low latitudes across the globe.[35] In 2013, it was estimated that, at the currentrate of global warming, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040, and "it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060".[40]: 430
The Furtwangler Glacier on Kilimanjaro is a remnant of the ice cap that once covered the mountain. This has retreated dramatically over the last century with over 80 percent glacial retreat. The glacier is named after Walter Furtwangler, who along with Ziegfried Koenig, was the fourth to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912.[42]
A complete disappearance of the ice would be of only "negligible importance" to the water budget of the area around the mountain. The forests of Kilimanjaro, far below the ice fields, "are [the] essential water reservoirs for the local and regional populations".[43]
Kilimanjaro is drained by a network of rivers and streams, especially on the wetter and more heavily eroded southern side and primarily above 1,200 m (3,900 ft). Below that altitude, increased evaporation and human water usage reduce the water flows. TheLumi andPangani rivers drain Kilimanjaro on the eastern and southern sides, respectively.[44]
In respect of it being 'the higheststratovolcano of the East African Rift that maintains a glacier on its summit', theInternational Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included 'The Pleistocene Kilimanjaro volcano' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'[45]
Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. TheChagga, who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereignChagga states, tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit.[46]
Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain.[47]
The mountain may have been known to non-Africans sinceantiquity. Sailors' reports recorded byPtolemy mention a "moon mountain" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa likeMount Kenya, the mountains ofEthiopia, theVirunga Mountains, theRwenzori Mountains, and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy,Aeschylus andHerodotus referred to "Egypt nurtured by the snows" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them.Martín Fernández de Enciso, a Spanish traveler toMombasa who obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in hisSumma de Geografía (1519) that west of Mombasa "stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile".[30][48]: 1–5 [49]: 114
The German missionariesJohannes Rebmann of Mombasa andJohann Krapf were the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographerHalford Mackinder and English explorerHarry Johnston, Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.[50][51] Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying,
This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.[48]: 6
In August 1861, the Prussian officer BaronKarl Klaus von der Decken accompanied by English geologist Richard Thornton[52] attempted to climb Kibo but "got no farther than 2,500 m (8,200 ft) owing to the inclemency of the weather".[48]: 9 [53] In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together withOtto Kersten, reaching a height of 4,300 m (14,000 ft).[54]
In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the "first European to reach the equatorial snows" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).[48]: 11 In June 1887, the Hungarian CountSámuel Teleki and the Austrian LieutenantLudwig von Höhnel made an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at 4,950 m (16,240 ft), but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at 5,300 m (17,400 ft).[55] Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.[56]: 81 The following year, Meyer planned another attempt withOscar Baumann, acartographer, but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during theAbushiri Revolt.[56]: 82 In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorerOtto Ehrenfried Ehlers approached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.[48]: 17–19
In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineerLudwig Purtscheller for a third attempt.[56]: 82 This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.[56]: 82 Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy slope.[56]: 82 Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.[56]: 82 They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.[56]: 82 After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.[56]: 84 On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.[56]: 84 In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above 4,600 m (15,000 ft) during their expedition.[56]: 84 They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani ofPangani, who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.[48]: 135–186
In 1909, London-bornGertrude Benham attempted to reach the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. After her porters abandoned the expedition upon discovering the skeletons of previous climbers, Benham continued alone and reached the edge of Kibo Crater, later named Gilman’s Point. Adverse weather conditions, including heavy snow and fog, made navigation difficult, leading her to turn back.[57] The first woman to successfully reach the summit of Kilimanjaro was Sheila MacDonald, who completed the ascent on 30 September 1927.[58]
"We will light a candle on top of Mount Kilimanjaro which will shine beyond our borders, giving hope where there is despair, love where there is hate, and dignity where before there was only humiliation."
The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbersEduard Hans Oehler andFritz Klute, who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via theDrygalski Glacier, and descended via the Western Breach.[56]: 85 The mountain lent its name to the 1914Battle of Kilimanjaro duringWorld War I.
In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.[60] One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant ofMarangu, Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.[60] Lauwo did not know his own age,[60] nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.[60] Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning ofWorld War I.[60] The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.[60] Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro.[61]
The lower northern and western slopes are dominated byAcacia savanna, while most of the wooded grassland of the lower southern and eastern slopes have been destroyed for cultivation.[69]
Records from the Maundi crater at 2,780 m (9,120 ft) indicate that the vegetation of Kilimanjaro has varied over time. Forest vegetation retreated during the Last Glacial Maximum and the ericaceous vegetation belt lowered by 1,500 m (4,900 ft) between 42,000 and 30,000 years ago because of the drier and colder conditions.[66]
The Tussock Grassland is an area on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro that contains many unique species of vegetation, such as thewater holding cabbage.[citation needed]
Since 1973, Mount Kilimanjaro has been designated as a national park, prohibiting human activities within its boundaries to preserve its ecosystem.[70] The government has also implemented a ban on tree harvesting to prevent environmental degradation and protect the park's biodiversity.[71]
Mount Kilimanjaro's slopes include arctic (top), dry alpine desert (middle), andmoorland (bottom) climactic zones.
The climate of Kilimanjaro is influenced by the height of the mountain, which allows the simultaneous influence of the equatorialtrade winds and the high altitudeanti-trades, and by the isolated position of the mountain. Kilimanjaro hasdaily upslope and nightly downslope winds, a regimen stronger on the southern than the northern side of the mountain. The flatter southern flanks are more extended and affect the atmosphere more strongly.[24]: 3–4
Kilimanjaro has two distinct rainy seasons, one from March to May and another around November. The northern slopes receive much less rainfall than the southern ones.[65] The lower southern slope receives 800 to 900 mm (31 to 35 in) annually, rising to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) altitude and peaking "partly over" 3,000 mm (120 in) in the forest belt at 2,000 to 2,300 m (6,600 to 7,500 ft). In the alpine zone, annual precipitation decreases to 200 mm (7.9 in).[67]: 18
The average temperature in the summit area is approximately −7 °C (19 °F). Nighttime surface temperatures on theNorthern Ice Field (NIF) fall on average to −9 °C (16 °F), with an average daytime high of −4 °C (25 °F). During nights of extremeradiational cooling, the NIF can cool to as low as −15 to −27 °C (5 to −17 °F).[37]: 674
Snowfall can occur at any time of year but is mostly associated with northern Tanzania's two rainy seasons.[37]: 673 Precipitation in the summit area occurs principally as snow andgraupel of 250 to 500 mm (9.8 to 19.7 in) per year and ablates within days or years.[31]
Climate data for Machame 10, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (5,803 m) (2012–2015)
Kilimanjaro National Park[74] generated US$51 million in revenue in 2013,[75]: 285 the second-most of any Tanzanian national park.[76]: 258 The Tanzania National Parks Authority reported that the park recorded 57,456 tourists during the 2011–12 budget year, of whom 16,425 hiked the mountain; the park's General Management Plan specifies an annual capacity of 28,470.[77] The mountain hikers generated irregular and seasonal jobs for about 11,000 guides, porters, and cooks in 2007.[78] Concerns have been raised about the poor working conditions and inadequate wages of these workers.[75]: 287–291 [76]: 259 [78] Due to Kilimanjaro National Park's popularity as a destination, the Tanzanian government has invested in road infrastructure to improve accessibility. In Tanzania,Kilimanjaro International Airport also serves as an important transportation hub.[79]
There are seven official trekking routes by which to ascend and descend Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Lemosho Western-Breach, Machame, Marangu, Mweka, Rongai, Shira, and Umbwe.[80] The Machame route can be completed in six or seven days,[81] Lemosho in six to eight, and the Northern Circuit routes in seven or more days.[82] The Lemosho Route can also be continued via the Western-Breach, submitting via the western side of the mountain. The Western Breach is more secluded and avoids the 6-hour midnight ascent to the summit (like other routes). The Rongai is the easiest of the camping routes.[83] The Marangu is also relatively easy, if frequently busy; accommodation is in shared huts.[84] The Lemosho Western-Breach Route commences on the western side of Kilimanjaro at Lemosho and continues to the summit via the Western-Breach Route.[73][85]
Technical climbing routes are available on the Mawenzi cone of Mount Kilimanjaro.[86] Unlike the traditional routes to Uhuru Peak on Kibo, which are open to the general public, climbing Mawenzi requires a special permit from the Tanzania National Parks Authority. These permits are issued exclusively to experienced climbers with appropriate equipment. Climbing on Mawenzi is limited to a maximum of two climbers at a time and is restricted to daytime hours.[87]
The oldest person to climb Mount Kilimanjaro isAnne Lorimor, aged 89 years and 37 days, who reached Uhuru Peak at 3:14 p.m. local time on 18 July 2019.[88][89] The oldest man to summit is AmericanFred Dishelhorst, who reached the top on 19 July 2017 at the age of 88 years, 5 months, and 28 days old.[90] Dishelhorst used supplemental oxygen on summit day. The second oldest man to reach the summit is American Charlie Winger,[91] who reached the top on 5 July 2025. He was 88 years, 1 month, and 26 days old and did not use supplemental oxygen. The third oldest man to summit the mountain is the American Robert Wheeler, who was 85 years and 201 days when he summited on 2 October 2014.[92] Maxwell J. Ojerholm of Massachusetts, USA, reached Uhuru Peak, the true summit, unassisted, at the age of ten years, on 4 July 2009, taking the difficult Machame Route. Colin M. Barker of Missouri, USA, later completed the same route at the age of ten on 22 December 2020.Theodore Margaroli from London, age 10, reached the summit unassisted by the Western Breach, the hardest but most scenic route, in 2019.[92][93] On 11 July 2025, Lydia Zhong Chew from Boulder, Colorado, USA, reached Uhuru Peak via the six-day-five-night Machame route, unassisted, at the age of 10. She and her 12-year-old sister Julia Zhong Chew are believed to be the two youngest climbers of Chinese descent. Despite an age limit of 10 years for a climbing permit, Keats Boyd from Los Angeles reached the summit on 21 January 2008 at the age of 7.[92] This record was equaled by Montannah Kenney from Texas in March 2018 and again in July 2018 by Coaltan Tanner from New Mexico.[92][94][95][96]The fastest ascent and the fastest round trip have been recorded by the Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guideKarl Egloff. On 13 August 2014, after guiding a party to the summit the previous days, he ran from Umbwe Gate to the top in 4 hours and 56 minutes and returned to the Mweka Gate at 1,630 m (5,350 ft) in a total time of 6 hours, 42 minutes and 24 seconds.[97][98] Previous records, using the same route, were held by Spanish mountain runnerKílian Jornet (ascent in 5:23:50, round trip 7:14 on 29 September 2010) and by Tanzanian guide Simon Mtuy (an unsupported round trip in 9:21 on 22 February 2006).[99][92][100]
The female round trip record is held byFernanda Maciel from Brazil in a time of 10 hours and 6 minutes.[97] Her ascent time of 7:08 was broken on 23 February 2018 by the Danish ultramarathon runner Kristina Schou Madsen with a time of 6:52:54 from Mweka Gate.[97][101]
Several climbs by disabled people have drawn attention. Wheelchair user Bernard Goosen from South Africa scaled Kilimanjaro in six days in 2007. In 2012,Kyle Maynard who has no forearms or lower legs, crawled unassisted to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro.[92]
On 9 February 2015, Red Bull athlete Valerii Rozov performed the firstwing-suit BASE jump from the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. He flew approximately 3 kilometres before landing on the southern slope.[102]
In 2020, a team featuring two double above-knee amputees,Hari Budha Magar and Justin Oliver Davis, summited Kilimanjaro. It took them six days to cover the 56 km (35 mi) distance to the summit.[103]
The climb is not technically as challenging as theHimalayas orAndes, but the high elevation, low temperature, and occasional high winds can make Kilimanjaro a difficult trek. Acclimatization is required, and even experienced and physically fit trekkers may suffer some degree ofaltitude sickness.[104][105] A study of people attempting to reach the summit of Kilimanjaro in July and August 2005 found that 61.3 percent succeeded and 77 percent experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS).[106] A retrospective study of 917 persons who attempted to reach the summit via the Lemosho or Machame routes found that 70.4 percent experienced AMS, defined in this study to be headache, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or loss of appetite.[107]
Kilimanjaro's summit is well above the altitude at which life-threateninghigh altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) orhigh altitude cerebral edema (HACE), the most severe forms of AMS, can occur.[108] These health risks are increased substantially by excessively fast climbing schedules motivated by high daily national park fees, busy holiday travel schedules, and the lack of permanent shelter on most routes.[109] The six-day Machame route, which involves one day of "climbing high" to Lava Tower (4,630 m (15,190 ft) and "sleeping low" at Barranco Camp (3,976 m (13,044 ft)), may delay the onset of AMS but does not ultimately prevent its occurrence.[110][111]
Falls on steep portions of the mountain and rock slides have killed trekkers. For this reason, the route via theArrow Glacier was closed for several years, reopening in December 2007. Now again it officially closed as of 20 January 2024. Due to strong El Niño, the Western Breach has washed down the mountain. This huge runoff has carved new ravines on the slopes and seems to be dislodging the sediment that cements the rock together, disrupting the rock stability. At the route's base, rain water has opened new drainages and there is an active, flowing river through the Arrow Glacier Camp where there has been no water at all for decades.[112][113] The improper disposal of human waste on the mountain environment has created a health hazard, necessitating the boiling of all water.[114]
According to the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi, 25 people died from January 1996 to October 2003 while climbing the mountain. Seventeen were female and eight were male, ranging in age from 29 to 74. Fourteen died from advanced high altitude illness, including one withHACE, five withHAPE, and six with both HACE and HAPE. The remaining eleven deaths resulted from "trauma (3),myocardial infarction (4),pneumonia (2), cardio-pulmonary failure of other underlying cause (1), and acuteappendicitis (1). The overall mortality rate was 13.6 per 100,000 climbers."[115]
Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcas of a leopard. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude.
^Kilimanjaro's second-highest peak, Mawenzi (Hans Meyer Pk), has sufficientprominence to be considered an independent mountain and not just a sub-peak. BothMessner andBass include Mawenzi as in their Seven Third Summits list, with Kilimanjaro's main peak (Kibo/Uhuru Pk) andMount Kenya's Batian peak as the second tallest (Kenya's second-highest peak, Nelion, is taller than Mawenzi but lacks prominence)
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