Kibyōshi (黄表紙;lit. 'yellow cover') is agenre of Japanese picture book (草双紙,kusazōshi) produced during the middle of theEdo period (1603–1867),[1] from 1775 to the early 19th century, physically identifiable by their yellow-backed covers.[2] Considered to be the first purely adultcomic books inJapanese literature, a large picture spanned each page, with descriptive prose and dialogue filling the blank spaces in the image.
Known for its satirical view of and commentary on flaws in contemporary society, these books focused primarily on urban culture, with most early works writing about thepleasure quarters. Typically,kibyōshi were printed with 10 pages in a volume, with the average number of total pages being 30, thus spanning several volumes.[3]Kibyōshi usedkana-based vernacular language, and due to the numerous characters and letters in the Japanese language,moveable type printing took longer to catch on in Japan, soKibyōshi text was carved directly onto the same wood block as the illustration for printing.[4] This allowed for a close and harmonious interaction between image and text,[5] with either a balance of both elements, or text dominating the image.[6]
Whilekibyōshi may have only been popular for a short period of time, thousands of pieces were published. At its peak in 1784, a record of 92 titles were published.[7] Only a fraction of this genre has been studied, leaving much to still be written.
Uda Toshihiko divides the history ofkibyōshi into five periods: theincipient pieces (1775–1779), early works (1780–1783), gossip pieces (1784–1787), protest pieces (1788–1790), and post-Kansei Reform works.[8]
The first majorkibyōshi to be published wasKinkin sensei eiga no yume, often translated asMaster Flashgold's Splendiferous Dream, byKoikawa Harumachi in 1775. It combined the wit and subject matter of fashionbooks with the graphic nature of theotogi-zōshi to retell the classicnoh dramaKantan in contemporaryEdo. Harumachi started with a prologue, which was common in fashionbooks but virtually nonexistent inotogi-zōshi. The piece featured realistic dialogue, trendy language, contemporary slang, and modern fashion trends.ThroughMaster Flashgold, Harumachi created not only a new genre but a new market entirely, with 50 to 60kibyōshi titles estimated to have been published in the following 2 to 3 years.[9] Initially, print runs were limited, but the high demands lead to the number of copies per run, as well as the number of titles per year, to increase. Another noteworthy piece released by Harumachi during this early phase ofkibyōshi wasTravelogue of Snobby Atelier (Kōmansai angya nikki), which he released the following year in 1776.[10]
Continuing his success, Harumachi released many more successfulkibyōshi. Other authors were keen to follow his lead, includingSantō Kyōden, Shiba Zenkō,Ōta Nanpo, and Hōseidō Kisanji, all of whom got their start during this period. Kisanji'sDreamers the Winners (Miru toku issui no yume) threw him into the popular literature spotlight when published in 1781. Earlykibyōshi targeted an educated audience with allusions made to "old-fashioned" theatre such as noh andkyōgen (inMaster Flashgold andTravelogue) andkabuki being used as a major plot point inDreamers.[11]
Kibyōshi published during this time tended to contain many references to contemporary persons, places and events, as well as heavily featuring socialsatire and some political satire.
Kyōden'sPlayboy, Roasted à la Edo (Edo umare uwaki no kabayaki; 1785) alluded to modern kabuki actors, authors, poets, and courtesans. It also featured political overtones regarding the class system, as the protagonist Enjirō tried desperately to live the life of theromantic heroes of kabuki plays and ballads, despite being a merchant's son, and by the end of the story, he is firmly put back in his place.
Other popular titles of the day includedPat-a-cake! Pat-a-cake! (Atama tenten ni kuchi ari) by Ōta Nanpo (1784),Horned Words of a Dishheaded Demoness (Hachikazuki hannya no tsuno moji) by Kyōden (1785), andAbsent White Lies (Teren itsuwari nashi) by Ōta Nanpo (1786)
Kibyōshi from this era reversed the proportion of the gossip pieces to feature mainly political satire with social satire in the background. Thesekibyōshi were written during an intense period of social unrest, as Japan was afflicted with natural catastrophes such as floods, volcanoes, cold weather, earthquakes, drought, and famine, causing high comodity prices that led an estimated one million citizens to starve to death.[12] Additionally, government corruption, fiscal mismanagement, and the threat of class wars were plaguing the nation.
This era'skibyōshi reflected popular protest sentiments, but the messages were never outright stated in order to get past censors. Instead, authors used a number of literary devices, such as allegory, asides, andreductio ad absurdum to code their true messages.[13] The key to the satire of this period was overtone rather than overt statements.
Popular subjects to satirize included theTokugawa regime, bad blood betweenTanuma Okitsugu andSano Zanzaemon Masakoto, devaluation of the silver coin, andNeo-Confucian policies advocated during theKansei Reforms, based on a sampling of major works.[14] While never proven, it is likely that these novels contributed to public outrage and violence.[15]
Famous satirical pieces of this era includeThousand Armed Goddess of Mercy, Julienned (Daihi no senrokuhon) by Zenkō (1785) (satirizing the devaluation of the silver coin),One Spring Night in Edo, One Thousand Gold Pieces (Edo no haru ichiya sen-ryō) by Kyōden (1786) (satirizing Neo-Confucian policies),Tale of the Two Tambours (Jidai sewa nichō tsuzumi) by Kyōden (1788) (satirizing political rivalry between Tanuma Okitsugu and Sano Masakoto),Unseamly Silverpiped Swingers (Sogitsugi gingiseru) by Kyōden (1788), (mocking the government's inability to manage the famine)
In 1791, strict censorship laws ended political satire inkibyōshi by prohibiting the authors from touching on current events and politics in their works.[citation needed] All printed material had to be approved by government appointed censors, and printblocks had to be submitted to a censor and stamped "inspected" before the piece could go to print.[citation needed] Additionally, all publications had to clearly state the names of the author, artist, and publisher to prevent unapproved material from being produced.[citation needed]
The government also reprimanded authors of the protest pieces.[citation needed] The first to be punished was Hōseidō Kisanji, who was exiled from Edo.[citation needed] Koikawa Harumachi was contacted, but died before punishment coukd be enacted.[citation needed] Ōta Nanpo stopped writing, and publisherTsutaya Jūzaburō had half of his assets confiscated.[citation needed]
Kyōden, undisputedly, was reprimanded most severely. He was brought before the City Magistrate and was forced to recant. He was then shackled and put under house arrest for 50 days.[citation needed] Despite the punishment, he continued to publishkibyōshi for 15 years, but no longer with political overtones.[citation needed] He also released what is considered one of the last masterpieces[citation needed] of the genre,The Night Before Rosei's Dream (Rosei ga yume sono zenjitsu), in 1791. It was written and published after the admonishments of Kisanji, Nanpo, and Harumachi, but before he himself was prosecuted.[16]
The last major author to be punished wasShikitei Sanba. His pieceSwaggering Headbands: A Chronicle of Urban Knight-Errantry in a Peaceful Realm (Kyan taiheiki mukō hachimaki), published in 1799, actually incited physical violence. An Edo fire brigade assailed his residence, as well as the residence of his publisher, ironically enough in protest of the negative portrayal of fire brigades in his story.[citation needed]
Due to censorship, works after 1791 lacked the playful spark of earlierkibyōshi.[17] Without political and social satire as fodder, authors were forced to go back to parodying earlierkibyōshi and other written formats.[citation needed]
Many scholars agree that the end of the genre came in 1806,[18] though individual pieces continued to trickle out until as late as 1828. While the Kansei Reforms certainly damaged the industry, it is believed this was not solely responsible for the disappearance of thekibyōshi, but rather that it just sped up the process. Some scholars believe the likely cause of the death of the genre was instead the constant attempts by authors to broaden the reader base by appealing to a wider audience.[19]
Initially,kibyōshi were written by educated authors for educated individuals. As authors attempted to expand the reader base across different classes and education levels, the jokes, allusions, and humour were inevitably dumbed down. As author Adam L. Kern notes, "in bending over backwards to expand its readership, thekibyōshi lost its esoteric uniqueness. In this sense,kibyōshi fell victim to its own success."[20]
There are several popular methods in whichkibyōshi are translated. One method used by James T. Araki in the 1970s is described as an illustrated playscript.[21] While not perfect, many translators followed his example and used this format. The main concern with this system is that all the text from the image is neatly divided up to a particular speaker, when, in the original format ofkibyōshi, it is difficult to pinpoint exact speakers, as the dialogue floats in the empty spaces of the page. Thus, this format gives the misconception thatkibyōshi was straightforward to read. It also creates a disconnect between the text and images by taking the text out of the image, making it seems as if the parts are independent of one another, which looses the interesting waykibyōshi text fit with the images on the page.
Another common method of translation is to replace the original, handwritten text. In the 1920s, Yamaguchi Takeshi replaced the penned text with typescript, but it did not adequately convey the flowing nature of the original script.Sugiura Hinako improved upon this concept when publishing her rendition ofMaster Flashgold by replacing the sprawling script with her own less curvaceous, more legible handwriting.[22]
Kibyōshi had its roots in earlier illustrated novels, starting with thecompanion novels. These lightly illustrated novels would slowly evolve intoakahon, or "red books", the oldest form of woodblock printed comic books.Akahon tended to be easy-to-read adaptations of children's stories, folk legends, and fairy tales. Thus, the next type of woodblock comics,kurohon, or "black books", feature more complicated retellings of kabuki and puppet plays, heroic legends and military accounts, while still being easy to read. This last genre is from whichkibyōshi would directly descend. Earlyaohon ("blue books") were almost indistinguishable fromkurohon, but this genre can be broken into two distinct categories: works that catered to younger, less literate readers and works that catered to cultured adults. The dye used to color the covers ofaohon faded with exposure to sunlight into various shades of yellow, which is how theseaohon became known askibyōshi. It is believed the name change occurred after the hype of the genre, askibyōshi were referred to asaohon as late as 1802.[23]
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