Khnum, also romanisedKhnemu (/kəˈnuːm/;Ancient Egyptian:𓎸𓅱𓀭ẖnmw,Koine Greek:ΧνοῦβιςChnoûbis),[citation needed] was one of the earliest-knownEgyptian deities inUpper Egypt, originally associated with theNile cataract. He held the responsibility of regulating the annual inundation of the river, emanating from the caverns ofHapi, the deity embodying the flood. Since the annual flooding of theNile brought with it silt and clay, and its water brought life to its surroundings, he eventually became known as the creator ofhuman bodies and the life forcekꜣ ("ka"). Using apotter's wheel andclay, he fashioned these entities and placed them within their mothers'wombs. Often, his creative endeavors were overseen by another god. He was later described as having moulded the other deities, and was revered as the creator of the animal kingdom.[1][2][3]Banebdjedet was the equivalent god inLower Egypt.[4]
Worship of Khnum spanned from theFirst Dynasty and persisted even into theGreco-Roman period when rule by native dynasties had ended. Initially, his primary cult center was atHerwer inMiddle Egypt. While his presence on the island ofElephantine dates back to theEarly Dynastic Period, it wasn't until theNew Kingdom that he ascended to become the principal deity of the island, acquiring the title as the overseer of theFirst Cataract of theNile River. At Elephantine, Khnum formed a divine triad alongside the goddessesSatis andAnuket. His religious significance also extended toEsna, located south ofThebes.[2][5][6]
Khnum's primary function in the inception of human beings was typically portrayed with the horns of aram, one of the sacred animals worshiped inAncient Egypt, representing aspects such asfertility, rebirth, regeneration, andresurrection. He was originally illustrated with horizontally spiraled horns (based on theAncient Egyptian corkscrew-horned sheep, an extinct subspecies of thebarbary sheep), but his representation later evolved to feature the down-turned horns ofAmmon in the New Kingdom (based on the extinct sheep subspeciesOvis platyra palaeoaegyptiacus). Khnum's imagery also includes thecrocodile head, denoting his dominion over the Nile. He can additionally be found wearing theatef crown adorned with two feathers, or the white crown of Upper Egypt.[2][7][8][9]
Thehieroglyphic symbolhnm (𓎸 ) often appearing in Khnum's name is derived from the wordhnmt, signifying "well", or "spring". His name can also be connected to aSemitic root meaning "sheep". Alternatively, the formation of the name can be interpreted as "the beloved divine being". Khnum is also often described with the termiw m hapy, meaning "the coming of the Nile". Additionally, he is called Khnum-Ra, representing his role in the Nile cataract as the soul of the sun-god,Ra. Khnum's positions and powers are described through various titles such as the "Creator god", "Potter god", "Lord of Life", "Lord of the Field", "Lord of Esna", "the good protector", and "Lord of the crocodiles".[2][5][6][8][10]
Over time, the Egyptian wordkhn.m was later created to mean "shape" or "build", akin to Khnum's divine powers in creation.[10] His significance also led to earlytheophoric names of him, for children, such as Khnum-Khufwy "Khnum is my Protector", the full name ofKhufu, builder of theGreat Pyramid of Giza.[11]
The worship of Khnum centered on two principal riverside sites, Elephantine and Esna, which were regarded as sacred sites. At Elephantine, he was worshipped alongside Satis and Anuket, while at Esna, he was worshipped alongsideMenhit,Nebtu,Neith andHeka.Banebdjedet was the equivalent god inLower Egypt. Khnum has also been related to the deityMin.[3][11][12]
At the Temple at Elephantine and the Temple at Esna, ancientrituals and festivals would take place. Among these was afertility rite, exclusively participated in by women seeking to conceive, with male priests disallowed. Held late in the evening at the Temple of Esna, this ceremony featured women presenting a potter’s wheel and offering chants before a concealed statue in honor of Khnum.[6] The "Installation of the Potter's Wheel" culminated in a celebrated with a feast, occurring on the first day of the month ofParemhat.[13]
Coffin of a Ram associated with Khnum in theEgyptian Museum.
The original cult center of Khnum was situated in the town of Elephantine, with thetemple dating back to theMiddle Kingdom era. Khnum, along with his consort Satis and daughter Anuket, were all documented at Elephantine by theEleventh Dynasty. During the New Kingdom period, leaders expanded existing temples and erected additional structures on the island of Elephantine. Notable additions included the Temples of Khnum and Satet, overseen by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, along with away-station for the festival barque dedicated to Khnum. SubsequentPtolemaic andRoman rulers also imposed their own embellishments later on.[14][15][16][17][18]
Remains of the temple house of the Khnum Temple on Elephantine Island in Aswan, Egypt
Rams revered by Khnum have been unearthed on the Elephantine Island, mummified, embellished with golden headgear, and placed in stone coffins.[2] There is also evidence discovered of tensions between the staff at the Temple of Elephantine and a nearbyJewish temple, arising from a desire of the Elephantine staff to enlarge the temple, causing detriment to the Jewish community.[19]
Remnants from theThirteenth Dynasty, such aslimestone fragments, provide evidence of architectural features including an entrance, an ornamented room featuring ceremonial depictions, and a sacred boat shrine. Portions of the Greco-Roman Temple of Khnum are believed to have originated from the Middle KingdomTemple of Satet.[14] Opposite Elephantine, on the east bank atAswan, Khnum, Satis and Anuket are shown on a chapel wall dating to thePtolemaic Kingdom.[15]
Presently, one of the few remaining sections of the Temple of Khnum is a grand monumental entrance.[11]
Khnum on the right withMenhit on the left, shown on the outside wall of the temple atEsna
InEsna, a temple was dedicated to Khnum,Neith andHeka, among other deities. Although construction of this temple commenced during the Ptolemaic era, the majority of its surviving sections were erected during Roman times. The temple rested in a field, which Khnum is regarded as the lord of, and was responsible for maintaining the land's fertility, ensuring the continuation of life. The Temple of Esna emphasizes his role as a divine potter through numerous hymns that attribute the creation of deities, mankind, plants, and animals to him. The north temple's wall features depictions of the favor shown by Roman rulers, showcasing offerings made by emperors and their encounters with deities.[2][6][15][16]
At the Temple of Esna, Emperor Tiberius is depicted led by the deities Buto and Nekhbet to Khnum.Khnum (left) fashions the god Ihy (middle) on a potter's wheel, with the help of the goddess Heqet, Dendera Temple.Horus, emperorCommodus and Khnum drawing a net with birds of the marshs and fishes, inner north wall, Temple of Khnum, Esna, Egypt.Scene at the south wall, king offers feathers to Khnum and Nepthys, Temple of Khnum, Esna, Egypt
Within the temple, Khnum is occasionally depicted with the head of a crocodile. His primary consorts are Nebt-uu andMenhit, while Heka is recognized as his eldest son and successor. Khnum is sometimes referred to as the "father of the fathers" and Neith as the "mother of the mothers". They later become the parents ofRa, who is also referred to as Khnum-Re.[20]
The completion of hieroglyphic embellishments in Egyptian temples culminated with the Temple of Esna.[6] Esna-A, built in the Ptolemaic era, later gained modern renown as the first ancient Egyptian structure to formally record a connection between thezodiac and the twodecan lists.[21]
Presently, much of the site lies in ruins, as many blocks had been repurposed to build a canal.[21] The remnants of the temple lie largely obscured beneath modern residential areas.[11]
Khnum is commonly depicted seated beside a potter's wheel, with a formed entity standing upon it, symbolizing his act of creation.[2] Khnum is often portrayed alongside the frog-headed fertility goddessHeqet, who can be seen assisting him at the pottery wheel, as seen in the wall relief of themammisi ofNectanebo II. Khnum and Heqet can also be found together molding the godIhy at theDendera Temple.[22]
Statues of Khnum, Satis, and Anuket, along withIsis andHorus, adorned theTemple of Beit el-Wali of Ramesses II.[15] In Karnak's GreatHypostyle Wall, Khnum stands beside Pharaoh Ramses II and Horus, employing a net to ensnare water fowl. This is also similarly depicted on the inner north wall of the Temple at Esna with Khnum alongside the Roman emperorCommodus.[6][19]
Throughout ancient texts, Khnum is depicted as a creator. In thePyramid Texts of the laterOld Kingdom, he crafts ferryboats and a ladder ascending to heaven.[5] TheFifth Dynasty portrays him specifically as the creator of the vessels used by thesun god Ra, known as thesolar barque. In theMiddle Kingdom, Khnum is credited as the creator of humans in spell 214 of theCoffin Texts.[8] Khnum is mentioned as an inactive god during afamine in theIpuwer Papyrus of the 12th dynasty, where it is said he "does not fashion because of the state of the land."[16] In thePapyrus d'Obriney of Seti II of theNew Kingdom, orTale of Two Brothers, Khnum is responsible for creatingBata's wife.[23] Khnum's role extends to theBook of the Dead, as part of the formula spell to prevent the heart of the deceased from opposing them in the Necropolis.[24]
Khnum features prominently in an inscription and relief of thePtolemaic Kingdom known as theFamine Stela, located on the island ofSehel, south of Elephantine. Thestela recounts a seven-year period of drought and famine during the reign of KingDjoser of theThird Dynasty. According to the inscription, Djoser receives a vision of Khnum, who promises to end the famine. In response, the king issues a decree of one-tenth of all revenue to be allocated to the Temple of Khnum as an offering of gratitude. Above the stela, King Djoser is depicted offering tributes to Khnum, as well as the goddessesSatis andAnuket.[11][23]
The Famine Stela, on the island of Sehel.
Khnum is also portrayed in the Stela ofSeti I. The king is depicted presenting an offering to Khnum, bowing while holding twonw-pots. Khnum holds awas-scepter in his left hand and an ankh in his right, adorned in a kilt and an atef crown topped with a solar disk. Both figures stand on amA-sickle and are equally sculpted. Above Khnum, it states, "Beloved of Khnum, lord of the West."[25]
In the Stela ofTutankhamun from Sinn el-Kabid, Tutankhamun is depicted incensing the god Khnum. Khnum is seated on a throne, dressed in a kilt, chest piece, and wide collar, holding an ankh and awas-scepter. Khnum, revered at Kumma, holds an epithet indicative of his protective role over riverine and desert passes, symbolized by opposing bows at the entrances. The text above Khnum designates him as the "Lord of the Cataract."[26]
Khnum is a recurring figure in numerous of the hymns within the temples at Elephantine and Esna, showcasing his significance. Distinctively,The Morning Hymn to Khnum aligns him with the godsAmun andShu, venerating him as the "Lord of life" and attributing him the ability to shape the bodies of humans. Another revered hymn,The Great Hymn to Khnum, celebrates him as the creator of all men, gods, and animals, as well as the provider of minerals and nurturer of plant life. This hymn delves into Khnum's intricate craftsmanship in forming body parts and assigning their functions. Additionally, Khnum is also acknowledged for creating a diversity of languages across regions, contrasting with Egyptian speech. In this hymn, Khnum is further depicted as the "Ba-of" many different deities scattered throughout Egypt, merging with the gods and representing the embodiment of their souls.[13] InThe Great Second Hymn to Khnum, the hymn depicts Khnum-Ra sailing across the sky to establish pillars with goddesses in the south, north, and east, and possibly the west.[27]
Further linking Khnum to the divine narrative, he is mentioned inThe Hymn to Hapy, connecting him to the Nile-god.[16]
Khnum, Setos I and Amun in the mortuary temple of Seti I in Abydos
The god Khnum plays a significant role in the birth narratives of Egyptian leaders, often serving to legitimize their rule. In the Old Kingdom, KingSahure of the Fifth Dynasty can be seen suckling on the goddessNekhbet at his birth, with Khnum presiding beside them.[28] In the Middle Kingdom, theWestcar Papyrus, recounts the birth of three triplet kings by the womanRuddedet. Khnum and the other deities disguise themselves to assist with the birth, and Khnum infuses "health" into the life of the bodies of the future kings, receiving a sack of barley as payment.[2][16] QueenHatshepsut of the New Kingdom was similarly illustrated being created on Khnum's potter's wheel in thedepiction of her Divine Birth, at the Temple ofDeir el-Bahari, bestowing "life, health, and strength, and all gifts," upon her. It is also carved that Khnum made "her appearance above the gods". Additionally, reliefs in theLuxor Temple illustrate Khnum crafting the body andka of KingAmenhotep III in a comparable manner.[8]
Relief atDeir el-Haggar (V) depictingTitus Caesar (left) making an offering before Khnum (middle) and Satet (right).
Painted relief ofThutmose I and Khnum in Elephantine Island.
Khnum on the details of the sarcophagus of the mummy from the Perpignan Museum. The mummy is a priest-scribe of the temple of Amun-Re from the21st dynasty named Iouef-en-Khonsou.
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