Khartoum, also spelledKhartum[a], is thecapital city ofSudan as well asKhartoum State. With an estimated population of 7.1 million people, Greater Khartoum is the largest urban area in Sudan.[3]
Khartoum is located at theconfluence of theWhite Nile[8] – flowing north fromLake Victoria – and theBlue Nile, flowing west fromLake Tana inEthiopia. Divided by these two parts of the Nile, the Khartoummetropolitan area is a tripartite metropolis consisting of Khartoum proper and linked by bridges toKhartoum North (الخرطوم بحريal-Kharṭūm Baḥrī) andOmdurman (أم درمانUmm Durmān) to the west. The place where the two Niles meet is known asal-Mogran oral-Muqran (المقرن; English: "The Confluence").
Khartoum was founded in 1821 byMuhammad Ali Pasha,[9] north of the ancient city ofSoba. In 1882 theBritish Empiretook control of the Egyptian government, leaving the administration of Sudan in the hands of the Egyptians. At the outbreak of theMahdist War, the British attempted to evacuate Anglo-Egyptian garrisons from Sudan but theSiege of Khartoum in 1884 resulted in the capture of the city byMahdist forces and a massacre of the defending Anglo-Egyptian garrison. In 1898 it was reoccupied by British forces and was the seat of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan's government until 1956.[10]
The origin of the wordKhartoum is uncertain. Some Scholars posit that the name derives from theDinka wordskhar-tuom (Dinka-Bor dialect) orkhier-tuom (as is the pronunciation in various Dinka dialects), translating to "place where rivers meet". This is supported by historical accounts which place theDinka homeland in central Sudan (around present-day Khartoum) as recently as the 13th-17th centuries A.D.[13]
Onefolk etymology is that it is derived fromArabickhurṭūm (خرطوم'trunk' or'hose'), probably referring to the narrow strip of land extending between the Blue and White Niles.[14]
CaptainJ.A. Grant, who reached Khartoum in 1863 withCaptain Speke's expedition, thought the name was most probably from the Arabicqurṭum (قرطم'safflower', i.e.,Carthamus tinctorius), which was cultivated extensively in Egypt for its oil to be used as fuel.[15] Some scholars speculate that the word derives from theNubian wordAgartum, meaning "the abode ofAtum", Atum being the Nubian and Egyptian god of creation. OtherBeja scholars suggestKhartoum is derived from theBeja wordhartoom, "meeting".[16][17] Sociologist Vincent J. Donovan notes that in theNiloticMaa language of theMaasai people,khartoum means "we have acquired" and that the geographical location of Khartoum is where Maasai oral tradition claims that the ancestors of the Maasai first acquiredcattle.[18]
In 1821, Khartoum was established 24 km (15 mi) north of the ancient city ofSoba, byIsma'il Kamil Pasha, the third son of Egypt's ruler,Muhammad Ali Pasha, who had just incorporated Sudan into his realm. Originally, Khartoum served as an outpost for theEgyptian Army. Egypt shifted the seat of the colonial government fromWad Madani to Khartoum in 1823, which became a permanent settlement and underwent rapid development in the next decades. With its elevation to capital status, Khartoum quickly grew into a regional center of trade, serving as arest area on the caravan route fromEthiopia toEgypt, but also becoming a major focal point for theslave trade.[19][20]
A significant change took place in 1854, when most of the city was destroyed by heavy rains and floods. It was rebuilt with houses made out of mud and stones, replacing those made out of thatch and straw. Khartoum also became the seat of several European consulates and theApostolic Vicariate of Central Africa. European pressure and influence forced Egypt to close the city's public slave market in 1854, although slaves continued to be sold and trafficked in large numbers, specifically from theBlue Nile region and theNuba Mountains, as well as down theWhite Nile (theDinka andShilluk territories).[21] According to the British explorerSamuel Baker, who visited Khartoum in 1862, slavery was the industry "that kept Khartoum going as a bustling town".[22]
On 13 March 1884, troops loyal to theMahdiMuhammad Ahmad began thesiege of Khartoum against the Egyptian garrison led by the British GeneralCharles George Gordon. Despite being fortified by trenches and a wall connecting the Blue and White Niles, the city was conquered by the Mahdists on 26 January 1885 and the entire garrison was annihilated. Many of the inhabitants were massacred or enslaved and the survivors were deported to the newly establishedOmdurman, while Khartoum was largely destroyed and abandoned.[23][24]
With the reconquest of Sudan by Anglo-Egyptian forces in 1898, Khartoum was established as the capital ofAnglo-Egyptian Sudan.Herbert Kitchener becameGovernor-General of the Sudan in September 1898, and began a programme of reconstruction, Khartoum was rebuilt according to a street plan in the shape of theUnion Jack. Khartoum Bahri was established as a garrison comprising a dockyard and a railhead toEgypt, while Omdurman, remained the most populous part and largely kept its old shape. He ordered the mosques of Khartoum rebuilt and guaranteed freedom of religion to all citizens. He also prevented Christian missionaries from trying to proselytize the local Muslims.[25][26]
The city rapidly grew and developed under British administration. UnderReginald Wingate (1899–1916), theGovernor-General's Palace in Khartoum was rebuilt using red bricks, with sandstone used for the corners. The buildings in Khartoum proper were modeled after Victorian architecture, with a distinct Middle Eastern influence as well as Mediterranean-style windows and balconies. The Gordon Memorial College (now theUniversity of Khartoum) was opened in 1903, and a new railway toPort Sudan was completed in 1919. These developments prompted large migration from rural areas, resulting in an increase in the city's population. By 1930, Khartoum was estimated to have a population of over 50,000.[27]Khartoum continued to grow after it was declared the capital of the newly independentRepublic of Sudan in 1956. Within the following years, theMunicipal Stadium, theKhartoum American School and theBank of Sudan would be established. This large scale development would spurred rural to urban migration, by 1964 Khartoum's population had ballooned to 185,000. In the 1973 census Khartoum would have a population of 334,000 inhabitants.[28]
In 1973, the city was the site of ahostage crisis in which members ofBlack September held 10 hostages at the Saudi Arabian embassy, five of them diplomats. The US ambassador, the US deputy ambassador, and the Belgianchargé d'affaires were murdered. The remaining hostages were released. A 1973United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded: "The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval ofYasser Arafat."[29]
In 1977, the first oil pipeline between Khartoum andPort Sudan was completed.[30] TheOrganization of African Unity summit of 18–22 July 1978 was held in Khartoum, during which Sudan was awarded theOAU presidency.[31]
Government House (1936); now the Presidential Palace
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Khartoum was the destination of hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing conflicts in neighboring nations such asChad,Eritrea,Ethiopia andUganda. Many Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees assimilated into society, while others settled in large slums on the city's outskirts. Since the mid-1980s, large numbers of refugees fromSouth Sudan andDarfur – fleeing the violence of theSecond Sudanese Civil War andDarfur conflict – have settled around Khartoum.
In November 1991, the government of PresidentOmar al-Bashir sought to remove half the population from the city. The residents, deemedsquatters, were mostly southern Sudanese whom the government feared could be potential rebel sympathizers. Around 425,000 people were placed in five "Peace Camps" in the desert an hour's drive from Khartoum. The camps were watched over by heavily armed security guards, many relief agencies were banned from assisting, and "the nearest food was at a market four miles away, a vast journey in the desert heat". Many residents were reduced to having only burlap sacks as housing. The intentional displacement was part of a large urban renewal plan backed by the housing minister, Sharaf Bannaga.[33][34][35]
The sudden death ofSPLA head and vice-president of SudanJohn Garang in late July 2005, was followed by three days of violentriots in the capital. Order was finally restored after southern Sudanese politicians and tribal leaders sent strong messages to the rioters. The death toll was at least 24, as youths from southern Sudan attacked northern Sudanese and clashed with security forces.[36]
TheAfrican Union summit of 16–24 January 2006 was held in Khartoum;[37] as was theArab League summit of 28–29 March 2006, during which they elected Sudan the Arab League presidency.[38]
On 23 October 2012, anexplosion at the Yarmouk munitions factory killed two people and injured another person. The Sudanese government claimed that the explosion was the result of an Israeli airstrike.[42]
On 3 June 2019, Khartoum was the site of theKhartoum massacre, where over 100 dissidents were murdered (the government said 61 were killed), hundreds more injured and 70 womenraped byRapid Support Forces (RSF) soldiers in order to forcefully disperse thepeaceful protests calling for a civilian government.[43]
On 1 July 2020, activists demanded that al-Zibar Basha street in Khartoum be renamed.Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur was a slave trader and the al-Zibar Basha street leads to the military base where the 2019 Khartoum massacre took place.[44]
On 26 October 2021, the city was locked down followinga military coup that left at least 7 dead, triggering protests and calls for a general strike. Prime ministerAbdalla Hamdok was arrested during the coup, and held along with other cabinet members in an unknown location.[45]
Khartoum is located at the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile.[47]
Khartoum is relatively flat, at elevation 385 m (1,263 ft),[48] as the Nile flows northeast past Omdurman toShendi, at elevation 364 m (1,194 ft)[49] about 163 km (101 mi) away.
Khartoum features ahot desert climate (Köppen climate classificationBWh) with a dry season occurring during winter, typical of the Saharo-Sahelian zone, which marks the progressive passage between theSahara Desert's vast arid areas and theSahel's vast semi-arid areas. The climate is extremely dry for most of the year, with about eight months when average rainfall is lower than 5 mm (0.20 in). The very long dry season is itself divided into a warm, very dry season between November and February, as well as a very hot, dry season between March and May. During this part of the year, hot, dry continentaltrade winds from deserts, such as theharmattan, sweep over the region; the weather is stable and very dry.
The very irregular, very brief, rainy season lasts about 1 month as the maximum rainfall is recorded in August, with about 48 mm (1.9 in). The rainy season is characterized by a seasonal reverse of wind regimes, when theIntertropical Convergence Zone goes northerly. Average annual rainfall is very low, with only 121.3 mm (4.78 in) of precipitation. Khartoum records on average six days with 10 mm (0.39 in) or more and 19 days with 1 mm (0.039 in) or more of rainfall. The highest temperatures occur during two periods in the year: the first at the late dry season, when average high temperatures consistently exceed 40 °C (104 °F) from April to June, and the second at the early dry season, when average high temperatures exceed 39 °C (102 °F) in September and October. Temperatures cool off somewhat during the night, with Khartoum's lowest average low temperature of the year, in January, just above 15 °C (59 °F). Khartoum is one of the hottest major cities on Earth, with annual mean temperatures hovering around 30 °C (86 °F). The city also has very warm winters. In no month does the average monthly high temperature fall below 30 °C (86 °F). This is something not seen in other major cities with hot desert climates, such asRiyadh,Baghdad andPhoenix.[50]
Almost 250,000 Syrians lived in Khartoum as of 2019, representing 5% of the total population of the city. Most are young men who have fled war in Syria. Sudan was the only country in the world to accept travelers carrying a Syrian passport who lacked a visa.[56]
In the 21st century, Khartoum developed based on Sudan's oil wealth (although the independence ofSouth Sudan in 2011 affected the economy of Sudan negatively[59]). The center of the city has tree-lined streets. Khartoum has the highest concentration ofeconomic activity in the country. This has changed as major economic developments take place in other parts of the country, likeoil exploration in the south, theGiad Industrial Complex inAl Jazirah state and White Nile Sugar Project in Central Sudan, and theMerowe Dam in the North.
Among the city's industries are printing, glass manufacturing, food processing, and textiles. Petroleum products are now produced in the far north of Khartoum state, providing fuel and jobs for the city. One of Sudan's largest refineries is located in northern Khartoum.[59]
TheSouq al Arabi is Khartoum's largest open air market. Thesouq is spread over several blocks in the center of Khartoum proper just south of the Great Mosque (Mesjid al-Kabir) and the minibus station. It is divided into separate sections, including one focused entirely on gold.[60]
Afra Mall is located in the southern suburb of Arkeweet. The Afra Mall has a supermarket, retail outlets, coffee shops, a bowling alley, movie theaters, and a children's playground.
In 2011, Sudan opened the Hotel Section and part of the food court of the new,Corinthia Hotel Tower. The Mall/Shopping section is still under construction.
Khartoum is the main location for most of Sudan's top educational bodies. There are four main levels of education:
Kindergarten and day-care. It begins in the age of 3–4, consisting of 1-2 grades, (depending on the parents).
Elementary school. The first grade pupils enter at the age of 6–7. It consists of 8 grades, after which, at 13–14 years old, students are ready to take the certificate exams and enter high school.
Upper second school and high school. In these three the school methods add some main academic subjects such as chemistry, biology, physics, and geography. There are three grades in this level. The students' ages are about 14–15 to 17–18.
Khartoum is home to the largest airport in Sudan,Khartoum International Airport. It is the main hub forSudan Airways, Sudan's main carrier. A new airport was planned for the southern outskirts of the city, but with Khartoum's rapid growth and consequenturban sprawl, the airport is still located in the heart of the city.
Khartoum's transportation is limited to the vehicular road system, with buses and personal vehicles comprising the main types of vehicles. As with many cities in the continent, parts of Khartoum are connected through privately owned buses.[63][64]
Khartoum has a number of bridges across both tributaries of the Nile. TheMac Nimir Bridge, theBlue Nile Road & Railway Bridge, theCooper Bridge (also known as the Armed Forces Bridge), and theElmansheya Bridge span the Blue Nile, connecting Khartoum to Khartoum North. TheOmdurman Bridge, the Victory Bridge, and theAl-Dabbasin Bridge span the White Nile, connecting Khartoum to Omdurman. TheTuti Bridge connects Tuti Island with Khartoum. Prior to the construction of the Tuti Bridge in 2008, residents of Tuti Island relied onwater taxis to cross the Blue Nile into Khartoum.
The architecture of Khartoum reflects the city's history since the early 1820s and is marked by both native Sudanese, Turkish, British and modern buildings. In general, thearchitecture of Sudan reflects a wide diversity in its shapes, materials, and use.
Since independence, the people of Sudan have introduced new infrastructure and technology, which has led to new and innovative building concepts, ideas and construction techniques.[65]
Khartoum's unique history and cultural significance have inspired literary works that explore its past, present, and future. For example, in "Reading Khartoum", the city is depicted as a space shaped by movement, political instability, and socio-cultural changes, resulting in underlying layers of meanings and ambiguity. Arabic-written poetry also offers a personalized glimpse of the city, reflecting its distinct cultural appearance and setting it apart from other Arab and African cities.[78]
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