The title subsequently declined in importance. During theSafavid andQajar dynasty it was the title of an army general high noble rank who was ruling a province, and inMughal India it was a high noble rank restricted to courtiers. After the downfall of the Mughals it was used promiscuously and becamea surname.[2] Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well.
The origin of the term is disputed and unknown, possibly a loanword from theRouran language.[3] A Turkic andPara-Mongolic origin has been suggested by a number of scholars includingRamstedt, Shiratori,Sinor andDoerfer, and was reportedly first used by theXianbei.[4][5]
Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan/Khan comes from the MiddleIranian *hva-kama- 'self-ruler, emperor', following the view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan/Khan and its female equivalent "khatun" may be derived fromEastern Iranian languages, specifically from "EarlySaka *hvatuñ, cf. the attested Soghdian wordsxwt'w 'ruler' (< *hva-tāvya-) andxwt'yn 'wife of the ruler' (< *hva-tāvyani)".[6]
"Khan" is first encountered as a title in theXianbei confederation[7] for their chief between 283 and 289.[8] TheRourans may have been the first people who used the titleskhagan andkhan for their emperors.[9] However, Russian linguistAlexander Vovin (2007)[10] believes that the termqaγan originated among theXiongnu people, who wereYeniseian-speaking (according to Vovin), and then it diffused across language families. Subsequently, theGöktürks adopted the title and brought it to the rest of Asia. In the middle of the sixth century theIranians knew of a "Kagan – King of the Turks".[7]
Various Mongolic and Turkic peoples from Central Asia gave the title new prominence after period of theMongol Empire (1206–1368) in the Old World and later brought the title "khan" into Northern Asia, where locals later adopted it.Khagan is rendered[by whom?] asKhan of Khans. It was the title of Chinese EmperorEmperor Taizong of Tang (Heavenly Khagan, reigned 626 to 649)[11] andGenghis Khan's successors selected to rule the Mongol Empire starting from 1229. Genghis Khan himself was referred asqa'an (khagan) only posthumously.[12] For instanceMöngke Khan (reigned 1251–1259) andOgedei Khan (reigned 1229–1241) would be "Khagans" but notChagatai Khan, who was not proclaimed ruler of the Mongol Empire by theKurultai.
Originally khans headed only relatively minor tribal entities, generally in or near the vast Mongolian and North Chinese steppe, the scene of an almost endless procession of nomadic people riding out into the history of the neighbouring sedentary regions. Some managed to establish principalities of some importance for a while, as their military might repeatedly proved a serious threat to empires in theCentral Plain andCentral Asia.[citation needed][tone]
One of the earliest notable examples of such principalities in Europe wasDanube Bulgaria (presumably alsoOld Great Bulgaria), ruled by akhan or akan at least from the 7th to the 9th century. The title "khan" is not attested directly in inscriptions and texts referring to Bulgar rulers – the only similar title found so far,Kanasubigi, has been found solely in the inscriptions of three consecutive Bulgarian rulers, namelyKrum,Omurtag andMalamir (a grandfather, son and grandson). Starting from the compound, non-ruler titles that were attested among Bulgarian noble class such askavkhan (vicekhan),tarkhan, andboritarkhan, scholars derive the titlekhan orkan for the early Bulgarian leader – if there was a vicekhan (kavkhan) there was probably a "full"khan, too. Compare also the rendition of the name of early Bulgarian rulerPagan asΚαμπαγάνος (Kampaganos), likely resulting from a misinterpretation of "Kan Pagan", inPatriarch Nicephorus's so-calledBreviarium.[13] In general, however, the inscriptions as well as other sources designate the supreme ruler of Danube Bulgaria with titles that exist in the language in which they are written –archontes, meaning 'commander or magistrate' inGreek, andknyaz, meaning "duke" or "prince" inSlavic. Among the best known Bulgar khans were:Khan Kubrat, founder ofGreat Bulgaria;Khan Asparukh, founder ofDanubian Bulgaria (today'sBulgaria);Khan Tervel, who defeated theArab invaders in 718Siege of Constantinople (718), thus stopped the Arab invasion in Southeast Europe;Khan Krum, "the Fearsome". "Khan" was the official title of the ruler until 864 AD, whenKnyaz Boris (known also asTsar Boris I) adopted theEastern Orthodox faith.[citation needed]
The title Khan rose to unprecedented prominence with the MongolTemüjin's creation of theMongol empire, the largest contiguous empire in history, which he ruled asGenghis Khan. Before 1229 the title was used to designate leaders of important tribes as well as tribal confederations (the Mongol Empire considered the largest one), and rulers of non-Mongol countries.[12] Shortly before the death of the Genghis Khan, his sons became khans in different dominions (ulus) and the title apparently became unsuitable for the supreme ruler of the empire, needing a more exalted one. Being under Uighur cultural influence, Mongols adopted the title of khagan starting withÖgedei Khan in 1229.[12]
Emperors of theMing dynasty also used the term Xan to denote brave warriors and rulers. The title Khan was used to designate the greatest rulers of theJurchens, who, later when known as theManchus, founded theQing dynasty.
Once more, there would be numerous khanates in the steppe in and around Central Asia, often more of a people than a territorial state, e.g.:[citation needed]
in presentKazakhstan, of theKazakhs (founded 1465; since 1601 divided into three geographicalJüz or Hordes, each under amirza,bey, or subordinate khan); it was briefly united by rulers likeAbu'l-Khair Muhammed andTauke Muhammed, but after 1748 it split into three different khanates again; it was eliminated by theRussian Empire in 1847.
in presentUzbekistan, the main khanate, named after its capitalBukhara, was founded in 1500 and restyledemirate in 1753 (after three Persian governors since 1747); theFerghana (valley's) khanate broke way from it by 1694 and became known as theKhanate of Kokand after its capitalKokand from its establishment in 1732; the khanate ofKhwarezm, dating from c.1500, became theKhanate of Khiva in 1804 but fell soon under Russian protectorate;Karakalpakstan had its own rulers (khans?) since c. 1600.
While most Afghan principalities were styled emirate, there was a khanate of ethnic Uzbeks inBadakhshan since 1697.
Khan was also the title of the rulers of various break-away states and principalities later inPersia, e.g. 1747–1808 Khanate ofArdabil (in northwestern Iran east of Sarab and west of the southwest corner of the Caspian Sea-Mazandaran and Gorgan provinces), 1747–1813 Khanate ofKhoy (northwestern Iran, north of Lake Urmia, between Tabriz and Lake Van), 1747–1829 Khanate ofMaku (in extreme northwestern Iran, northwest of Khoy, and 60 miles south of Yerevan, Armenia), 1747–1790s Khanate ofSarab (northwestern Iran east of Tabriz), 1747 – c.1800 Khanate ofTabriz (capital of Iranian Azerbaijan).[citation needed]
As hinted above, the title Khan was also common in some of the polities of the various – generally Islamic – peoples in the territories of the MongolGolden Horde and its successor states, which, like the Mongols in general, were commonly calledTa(r)tars[c] by Europeans and Russians, and were all eventually subdued by Muscovia which became theRussian Empire. The most important of these states were:[citation needed]
Khanate of Kazan (the Mongol term khan became active since Genghizide dynasty was settled inKazan Duchy in 1430s).
Sibir Khanate (giving its name to Siberia as the first significant conquest during Russia's great eastern expansion across the Ural range)
Khanate ofKashgaria founded in 1514; 17th century divided into several minor khanates without importance, real power going to the so-calledKhwaja, Arabic Islamic religious leaders; title changed toAmir Khan in 1873, annexed by the Qing dynasty in 1877.
Mongol Empire's largest extent outlined in red; theTimurid Empire is shaded.
The higher, rather imperial titleKhaqan ("Khan of Khans") applies to probably the most famous rulers known asKhan: theMongol imperial dynasty ofGenghis Khan (his name was Temüjin,Genghis Khan a never fully understood unique title), and his successors, especially grandsonKublai Khan: the former founded theMongol Empire and the latter founded theYuan Dynasty inChina. The ruling descendants of the main branch of Genghis Khan's dynasty are referred to as theGreat Khans.[citation needed]
The titleKhan of Khans was among numerous titles used by theSultans of theOttoman Empire as well as the rulers of theGolden Horde and its descendant states. The titleKhan was also used in theSeljuk Turk dynasties of the near-east to designate a head of multiple tribes, clans or nations, who was below anAtabeg in rank.Jurchen andManchu rulers also used the title Khan (Han inManchu); for example,Nurhaci was called Genggiyen Han. Rulers of theGöktürks,Avars andKhazars used the higher title Kaghan, as rulers of distinct nations.[citation needed]
Gur Khan, meaning supreme or universal Khan, was the ruler of the KhitanKara-Kitai, and has occasionally been used by the Mongols as well
Ilkhan, both a generic term for a 'provincial Khan'and traditional royal style for one of the four khanates in Genghis's succession, based in Persia. Seethe main article for more details.
Khan-i-Khanan (Persian:خان خانان, "Lord of Lords") was a title given to the commander-in-chief of the army of theMughals, an example beingAbdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana of the greatMughal emperor,Akbar's (and later his son Jahangir's) army.
Khan SahibShriBabi was the complex title of the ruler of theIndianprincely state ofBantva-Manavadar (state founded 1760; September 1947 acceded to Pakistan, but 15 February 1948 forced to rescind accession to Pakistan, to accede to India after Khan Sahib's arrest).
In southernKorean states, the wordHan orGan, meaning "leader", could be origin of wordkhan according to Turkic history textbook.Geoseogan orGeoseulhan, the title ofHyeokgeose of Silla means "leader of leaders" and "king" in language ofJinhan confederacy. He was leader of Saro State, one of the chiefdoms of theJinhan confederacy in 37 BC. AfterSilla, one of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, totally united them under a now hereditary king, titledMaripgan, meaning the 'head of kings' (e.g. King Naemul Maripgan).
Khatun, orKhatan (Persian:خاتون) – a title of IranianSogdian origin[14][15][16] – is roughly equal to aKing'squeen inMongolic andTurkic languages, as by this title a ruling Khan's Queen-consort (wife) is designated with similar respect after their proclamation as Khan and Khatun. Also used inKhazar (instead of Khanum). Famous Khatuns include:
Khanum (Turkish:Hanım;Azerbaijani:Xanım;Persian:خانم) is another female derivation of Khan, notably inTurkic languages, for a Khan's Queen-consort, or in some traditions extended as a courtesy title (a bit like Lady for women not married to a Lord, which is the situation modernTurkish) to the wives of holders of various other (lower) titles. In mostly Persian-speaking Afghanistan, it ended up as the common term for 'Miss', any unmarried woman; in the Iranian Persian language it is used to address any woman respectfully, as in 'Ms. Smith' / 'Khanum-e Smith'. In the modernKazakh language,Khatun is a derogatory term for women, whileKhanum has a respectful meaning.
Khan Bahadur (title) - a compound of khan (leader) and Bahadur (Brave) - was a formal title of respect and honour, which was conferred exclusively on Muslim subjects of the British Indian Empire.[1] It was a title one degree higher than the title of Khan Sahib.
The compoundGalin Khanum – literally, "lady bride" – was the title accorded to the principal noble wife of aQajar
Khanzada (Urdu:خانزاده) is a title conferred to princes of the dynasties of certain princely states ofIndia. The word also transliterates to "prince" in theUzbek andKazakh languages and was used by these Central Asian peoples to honor their princes.
Sardargarh-Bantva(Muslim Babi dynasty, fifth class state inKathiawar,Gujarat) in front of the personal name,Shri in between; the ruler replaces Khanzada by khan.
Kanasubigi orKana subigi, as it is written in Bulgarian Greek inscriptions, was a title of theBulgars. Among the proposed translations for the phrasekanasubigi as a whole arelord of the army, from the reconstructedTurkic phrase*sü begi, paralleling the attestedOld Turkicsü baši,[17] and, more recently, "(ruler) from God", from theIndo-European*su- andbaga-, i.e.*su-baga (an equivalent of theGreek phraseὁ ἐκ Θεοῦ ἄρχων,ho ek Theou archon, which is common in Bulgar inscriptions)
Kavhan[18] or Kaukhan was one of the most important officials in theFirst Bulgarian Empire. According to the generally accepted opinion, he was the second most important person in the state after the Bulgarian ruler. Owais Khan was also believed a Great Khan but no evidences about him are founded.[citation needed]
In imperialPersia, Khan (female formKhanum in Persia) was the title of a nobleman, higher thanBeg (orbey) and usually used after the given name. At theQajar court, precedence for those not belonging to the dynasty was mainly structured in eight classes, each being granted an honorary rank title, the fourth of which was Khan, or in this context synonymously Amir, granted to commanders of armed forces, provincial tribal leaders; in descending order.In neighboringOttoman Turkey and subsequently the Republic of Turkey, the termKhanum was and is still written asHanım inTurkish/Ottoman Turkish language. The Ottoman title ofHanımefendi (lit translated;lady of the master), is also a derivative of this.
The titles Khan and Khan Bahadur (from the Altaic rootbaghatur), related to theTurkicbatyr orbatur andMongolianbaatar ("brave, hero"); were also bestowed in feudal India by theMughals, who although Muslims were of Turkic origin upon Muslims and awarded this title to Hindus generals in army particularly in Gaud or Bengal region during Muslim rulers, and later by theBritish Raj, as an honor akin to the ranks of nobility, often for loyalty to the crown.Khan Sahib was another title of honour.
In the majorIndian Muslim state ofHyderabad, Khan was the lowest of the aristocratic titles bestowed by the rulingNizam upon Muslim retainers, ranking underKhan Bahadur,Nawab (homonymous with a high Muslim ruler's title), Jang,Daula,Mulk,Umara,Jah. The equivalent for the courts Hindu retainers wasRai. InSwat, a Pakistani Frontier State, it was the title of the secular elite, who together with theMullahs (Muslim clerics), proceeded to elect a newAmir-i-Shariyat in 1914. It seems unclear whether the series of titles known from the Bengal sultanate are merely honorific or perhaps relate to a military hierarchy.[citation needed]
Like many titles, the meaning of the term has also extended southwards intoSouth Asian countries,[19] andCentral Asian nations, where it has become a common surname.
Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well. Notably inSouth Asia it has become a part of many South Asian Muslim names,[19] especially whenPashtun (also known asAfghan) descent is claimed. It is also used by manyMuslim Rajputs[20] ofIndian subcontinent who were awarded this surname byMughals for their bravery.[21] and it's widely used by Baloch and Awan tribes.
^Khagan itself was borrowed by the Turks from the unclassifiedRouran language.[1]
^The spelling with 'r' is due to a confusion withtartaros, the classical Greek hell. Genghis Khan's conquering, ransacking Mongol hordes terrorized Islam and Christianity without precedent, as if the apocalypse had started.
^Vovin, Alexander. 2010. Once Again on the Ruan-ruan Language. Ötüken’den İstanbul’a Türkçenin 1290 Yılı (720–2010) Sempozyumu From Ötüken to Istanbul, 1290 Years of Turkish (720–2010). 3–5 Aralık 2010, İstanbul / 3–5 December 2010, İstanbul: 1–10.
^KRADER, LAWRENCE (1955). "QAN-QAγAN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF MONGOL KINGSHIP".Central Asiatic Journal.1 (1):17–35.ISSN0008-9192.JSTOR41926298.
^Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (2020)."Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West".Evolutionary Human Sciences.2: e20.doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.18.hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-772B-4.ISSN2513-843X.PMC7612788.PMID35663512.S2CID218935871.but their ultimate origins may lie outside the Turkic family, as is most likely the case for the title of khagan (χαγάνος, chaganus) < ? Middle Iranian *hva-kama- 'self-ruler, emperor' (Dybo, Reference Dybo2007: 119–120). Following Benveniste (Reference Benveniste1966), Dybo (Reference Dybo2007: 106–107) considers Turkic *χatun 'king's wife' a word of ultimate Eastern Iranian origin, borrowed presumably from Early Saka *hvatuñ, cf. the attested Soghdian words xwt'w 'ruler' (< *hva-tāvya-) and xwt'yn 'wife of the ruler' (< *hva-tāvyani).
^abHenning, W. B., 'A Farewell to the Khagan of the Aq-Aqataran',"Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African studies – University of London", Vol 14, No 3, pp. 501–522
^Източници за българската история – Fontes historiae bulgaricae. VI. Fontes graeci historiae Bulgaricae. БАН, София. p.305 (inByzantine Greek and Bulgarian).Also available online
^Carter Vaughn Findley, "Turks in World History", Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 45: "... Many elements of non-Turkic origin also became part of Türk statecraft [...] for example, as in the case of khatun [...] and beg [...] both terms being of Sogdian origin and ever since in common use in Turkish. ..."
^Fatima Mernissi, "The Forgotten Queens of Islam", University of Minnesota Press, 1993. pg 21:"... Khatun 'is a title of Sogdian origin borne by the wives and female relatives of the Tu-chueh and subsequent Turkish Rulers ..."
^Leslie P. Peirce, "The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire", Oxford University Press, 1993. pg 312:"... On the title Khatun, see Boyle, 'Khatun', 1933, according to whom it was of Soghdian origin and was borne by wives and female relations of various Turkish Rulers. ..."
