Ketchup is sometimes used as the basis for, or as one ingredient in, other sauces and dressings, and the flavor may be replicated as anadditive flavoring for snacks, such aspotato chips.[9]
Nomenclature
Terminology
The term used for the sauce varies.Ketchup is the dominant term inAmerican English andCanadian English, althoughcatsup is commonly used in some southern US states andMexico.[10]
In Canada and the US,tomato sauce is not a synonym for ketchup but is a sauce made from tomatoes and commonly used in making sauce for pasta.[11]
Etymology
Look upketchup in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The etymology of the wordketchup is unclear; there are multiple competing theories:[12]
Amoy theory
A popularfolk etymology is that the word came from theAmoy (Xiamen) region ofChina into English, as aborrowed word茄汁 (ke2 zap1,Cantonese, meaning "tomato sauce";[13] the character茄 means 'eggplant';tomato in Chinese is番茄, so the phrase literally translates toforeign eggplant sauce).
Another theory among academics is that the word derives from one of two words fromHokkien of theFujian region of coastal southern China:kôe-chiap (in theAmoy / Xiamen dialect andQuanzhou dialect) orkê-chiap[14][15] (in theZhangzhou dialect). Both of these pronunciations of the same word (膎汁,kôe-chiap /kê-chiap) come from theQuanzhou dialect,Amoy dialect, andZhangzhou dialect of Hokkien, respectively, where it meant thebrine of pickled fish or shellfish (膎, 'pickled food' (usually seafood) +汁, 'juice'). There are citations ofkoe-chiap in theChinese-English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language ofAmoy (1873) byCarstairs Douglas, defined as "brine of pickled fish or shell-fish."[16]
Malay theory
Ketchup may have entered the English language from theMalay wordkicap (pronounced[kitʃap], sometimes spelledkecap orketjap). Originally meaning "soy sauce", the word itself derives from Chinese.[17]
InIndonesian cuisine, which is similar toMalay, the termkecap refers to fermented savory sauces. Two main types are well known in their cuisine:kecap asin, which translates to "saltykecap" inIndonesian (a salty soy sauce) andkecap manis or "sweetkecap" in Indonesian.Kecap manis is asweet soy sauce that is a mixture of soy sauce with brown sugar, molasses, garlic, ginger, anise, coriander and a bay leaf reduced over medium heat until rather syrupy. A third type,kecap ikan, meaning "fishkecap" isfish sauce similar to theThainam pla or thePhilippinepatis. It is not, however, soy-based.
European-Arabic theory
American anthropologist E. N. Anderson relies on Elizabeth David to claim thatketchup is acognate of the Frenchescavèche [fr], meaning "food in sauce".[18] The word also exists in Spanish and Portuguese forms asescabeche, "a sauce for pickling", which culinary historian Karen Hess traced back to Arabickabees, or "pickling with vinegar". The term was anglicized tocaveach, a word first attested in the late 17th century, at the same time asketchup.[12]
Early uses in English
Blue Label Tomato Ketchup advertisement, Curtice Brothers, 1898
The word entered theEnglish language in Britain during the late 17th century, appearing in print asketchup (1682),catchup (1690), and later ascatsup (1730). The following is a list of early quotations collected by theOxford English Dictionary and others.
1682,John Chamberlayne,The Natural history of coffee, thee, chocolate, tobacco 18
"… I do not doubt, but youLondon Gentlemen, do value [Chocolate] above all yourCullises andJellies, yourAnchoves,Bononia Sawsages, yourCock, orLamb-stones, yourSoys, yourKetchups andCaveares, yourCantharides, and yourWhites ofEggs, are not to be compared to our rudeIndian…"[19]
1683, M. H.,The Young Cook's Monitor 68, 104, 139
"if you have any Ketchup you may put in half a score drops", "put into it half a Spoonful of Ketchup", etc.[20]
"Some lamb chops (breaded, with plenty of ketchup)."
1845,Eliza Acton,Modern Cookery v. (1850) 136 (L.)
"Walnut catsup."
1862,Macmillan's Magazine. Oct. 466
"He found in mothery catsup a number of yellowish globular bodies."
1874, Mordecai C. Cooke,Fungi; Their Nature, Influence and Uses 89
"One important use to which several ... fungi can be applied, is the manufacture of ketchup."
History
The termketchup first appeared in 1682.[22] Recipes for many types of ketchup began to appear in British and then American cookbooks in the 18th century.
In the United Kingdom, from the 1600s ketchup was prepared withmushrooms as a primary ingredient, rather than tomatoes.[23][24][25] In the United States,mushroom ketchup dates back to at least 1770, and was prepared by British colonists in theThirteen Colonies.[26]
Tomato ketchup
Tomato ketchup and othercondimentsTomato ketchup next to raw tomatoes
James Mease published the first known tomato ketchup recipe in 1812. An early recipe for "tomato catsup" from 1817 includesanchovies and insects:[27]
Gather a gallon of fine, red, and full ripe tomatas; mash them with one pound of salt.
Let them rest for three days, press off the juice, and to each quart add a quarter of a pound of anchovies, two ounces of shallots, and an ounce of ground black pepper.
Boil up together for half an hour, strain through a sieve, and put to it the following spices; a quarter of an ounce ofmace, the same of allspice and ginger, half an ounce of nutmeg, adrachm of coriander seed, and half a drachm ofcochineal.
Pound all together; let them simmer gently for twenty minutes, and strain through a bag: when cold, bottle it, adding to each bottle a wineglass of brandy. It will keep for seven years.
In 1824, a ketchup recipe using tomatoes appeared inThe Virginia Housewife (an influential 19th-century cookbook written by Mary Randolph,Thomas Jefferson's cousin). Tomato ketchup was sold locally by farmers. Jonas Yerkes is credited as the first American to sell it in a bottle.[28] By 1837, he had produced and distributed the condiment nationally.[29] By the mid-1850s, anchovies no longer featured as an ingredient.[27]
Shortly thereafter, other companies followed suit.F. & J. Heinz launched their tomato ketchup in 1876.[30] By 1897 theSears catalog reported "there are hundreds of brands of Catsup on the market, a few of them good."[31]
American cooks also began to sweeten ketchup in the 19th century.[32] TheWebster's Dictionary of 1913 defined "catsup" as: "table sauce made from mushrooms, tomatoes, walnuts, etc. [Also written as ketchup]." As the century progressed, tomato ketchup began its ascent in popularity in the United States. Tomato ketchup was popular long before fresh tomatoes were. People were less hesitant to eat tomatoes as part of a highly processed product that had been cooked and infused with vinegar and spices.[33]
Heinz Tomato Ketchup was advertised: "Blessed relief for Mother and the other women in the household!", a slogan which alluded to the lengthy process required to produce tomato ketchup in the home.[34] With industrial ketchup production and a need for better preservation there was a great increase of sugar in ketchup, leading to the typically sweet and sour formula of today.[27] In Australia, it was not until the late 19th century that sugar was added totomato sauce, initially in small quantities, but today it contains just as much as American ketchup and only differed in the proportions of tomatoes, salt and vinegar in early recipes.[35] While ketchup and tomato sauce are both sold in Australia, American ketchup is sweeter and thicker whereas Australian tomato sauce is more sour and runny.[36]
Modern ketchup emerged in the early years of the 20th century, out of a debate over the use ofsodium benzoate as a preservative in condiments.Harvey W. Wiley, the "father" of theUS Food and Drug Administration, challenged the safety of benzoate which was banned in the 1906Pure Food and Drug Act.In response, entrepreneurs includingHenry J. Heinz, pursued an alternative recipe that eliminated the need for that preservative.[citation needed]Katherine Bitting, a bacteriologist working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, carried out research in 1909 that proved increasing the sugar and vinegar content of the product would prevent spoilage without use of artificial preservatives. She was assisted by her husband, Arvil Bitting, an official at that agency.[37]
Prior to Heinz (and his fellow innovators), commercial tomato ketchups of that time were watery and thin, in part because they used unripe tomatoes, which were low inpectin.[38] They had less vinegar than modern ketchups; bypickling ripe tomatoes, the need for benzoate was eliminated without spoilage or degradation in flavor. But the changes driven by the desire to eliminate benzoate also produced changes[clarification needed] that some experts (such as Andrew F. Smith[39]) believe were key to the establishment of tomato ketchup as the dominant American condiment.[citation needed]
In fast food outlets, ketchup is often dispensed in small sachets or tubs. Diners tear the side or top ofketchup packets and squeeze ketchup out of them or peel the foil lid off tubs for dipping. In 2011, Heinz began offering a new measured-portion package, called the"Dip and Squeeze" packet, which can be opened in either way.[40]
Some fast food outlets previously dispensed ketchup from hand-operated pumps into paper cups. This method has made a comeback in the first decades of the 21st century, as cost and environmental concerns over the increasing use of individual plastic ketchup tubs were taken into account.[citation needed]
In October 2000, Heinz introduced colored ketchup products called EZ Squirt, which eventually included green (2000), purple (2001), mystery (pink, orange, orteal, 2002), and blue (2003).[41] These products were made by addingfood coloring to the traditional ketchup. By January 2006, these products were discontinued.[42]
Some ketchup in the U.S. is labeled "Fancy", aUSDA grade related tospecific gravity. Fancy ketchup has a higher tomato solid concentration than other USDA grades.[44]
USDA ketchup grades
Grade
Specific gravity
Total solids
Fancy
1.15
33%
Extra Standard
1.13
29%
Standard
1.11
25%
Nutrition
The following table compares the nutritional value of ketchup with raw ripe tomatoes andsalsa, based on information from theUSDA Food Nutrient Database.[45]
Commercial tomato ketchup has an additive, usuallyxanthan gum, which gives the condiment anon-Newtonian,pseudoplastic or "shear thinning" property—more commonly known asthixotropy.[citation needed] This increases the viscosity of the ketchup considerably with a relatively small amount added—usually 0.5%—which can make it difficult to pour from a container. However, the shear thinning property of the gum ensures that when a force is applied to the ketchup, it will lower the viscosity, enabling the sauce to flow. A common method of getting ketchup out of the bottle involves inverting the bottle and shaking it or hitting the bottom with the heel of the hand, which causes the ketchup to flow rapidly. Ketchup in plastic bottles can be additionally manipulated by squeezing the bottle, which also decreases the viscosity of the ketchup inside. Another technique involves inverting the bottle and forcefully tapping its upper neck with two fingers (index and middle finger together). Specifically, with aHeinz ketchup glass bottle, one taps the 57 circle on the neck. This helps the ketchup flow by applying the correct shearing force.[46] These techniques work because of how pseudoplastic fluids behave: theirviscosity (resistance to flow) decreases with increasing shear rate. The faster the ketchup is sheared (by shaking or tapping the bottle), the more fluid it becomes. After the shear is removed, the ketchup thickens to its original viscosity.
Ketchup is anon-Newtonian fluid, meaning that its viscosity changes under stress and is not constant. It is a shear thinning fluid, which means its viscosity decreases with increased shear stress.[47] The equation used to designate a non-Newtonian fluid is as follows:. This equation representsapparent viscosity where apparent viscosity is theshear stress divided byshear rate. Viscosity is dependent on stress. This is apparent when one shakes a bottle of ketchup so it becomes liquid enough to squirt out. Its viscosity decreases with stress.[48]
Graph representation of the three main fluid viscosity categories
The molecular composition of ketchup is what creates itspseudoplastic characteristics. Small polysaccharides, sugars, acids, and water make up the majority of the metastable ketchup product, and these small structures are able to move more easily throughout a matrix because of their low mass. While exposed to shear stress, the molecules within the suspension are able to respond quickly and create an alignment within the product.[49] The bonds between the molecules are mostly hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, and electrostatic interactions, all of which can be broken when subject to stress.Hydrogen bonds are constantly rearranging within a product due to their need to be in the lowest energy state, which further confirms that the bonds between the molecules will be easily disrupted. This alignment only lasts for as long as shear stress is applied. The molecules return to their original disorganized state once the shear stress dissipates.[49]
In 2017, researchers at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology reported the development of a bottle coating that allowed all the product to slip out without leaving a residue.[50]
In 2022, researchers at theUniversity of Oxford found that splatter from a near-empty bottle can be prevented by squeezing more slowly and doubling the diameter of the nozzle.[51]
Separation
Ketchup is one of the many products that are leachable, meaning that the water within the product migrates together as the larger molecules within the product sediment, ultimately causing water to separate out. This forms a layer of water on top of the ketchup due to the molecular instability within the product.[52] This instability is caused by interactions between hydrophobic molecules and charged molecules within the ketchup suspension.
Pectin is a polysaccharide within tomatoes that has the ability to bind to itself and to other molecules, especially water, around it. This enables it to create a gel-like matrix, dependent on the amount within the solution. Water is a large part of ketchup, due to it being 80% of the composition of distilled vinegar. In order for the water within the ketchup to be at the lowest possible energy state, all of the hydrogen bonds that are able to be made within the matrix must be made.[53] The water bound to the polysaccharide moves more slowly within the matrix, which is unfavorable with respect toentropy.[52] The increased order within the polysaccharide-water complex gives rise to a high-energy state, in which the water will want to be relieved. This concept implies that water will more favorably bind with itself because of the increased disorder between water molecules. This is partially the cause for water leaching out of solution when left undisturbed for a short period of time.
^abSmith, Andrew F. (2001).Pure Ketchup: A History of America's National Condiment. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 4.ISBN1-56098-993-9.The etymological origin of the wordketchup is a matter of confusion
^Smith, Andrew F. (2013).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America (2nd ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 54.ISBN978-0-19-973496-2.
^Gladwell, Malcolm (2009).What the Dog Saw and Other Adventure Stories. New York: Little, Brown & Co. p. 41.
^abVilgis, T. (1893). "Nineteen: "Ketchup as Tasty Soft Matter"".The Kitchen as Laboratory: Reflections on the Science of Food and Cooking. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 142–145.
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