Kerinci
basê Kinci basê Kincai
Suhat incoung, the original script of the Kerinci language
Pronunciation	[ba.səkiɲ.t͡ʃai̯]
Native to	Indonesia (Jambi andBengkulu)
Region	Sumatra
Ethnicity	Kerinci
Native speakers	(254,125 cited Jambi, 2000)[1]
Language family	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Malayic Kerinci
Dialects	Belui Air Hangat Danau Kerinci Gunung Kerinci Gunung Raya Pembantu Sungai Tutung Sitinjau Laut Sungai Penuh
Writing system	Latin (Indonesian alphabet) Incung Jawi
Language codes
ISO 639-3	kvr
Glottolog	keri1250
Linguasphere	33-AFA-da
Areas where Kerinci language is a majority   Areas where Kerinci language is a minority
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Kerinci (basê Kinci orbasê Kincai) is anAustronesian language primarily spoken by theKerinci people inSungai Penuh andKerinci Regency, as well as parts ofMerangin andBungo Regency in westernJambi.^[2] It is also spoken in several hamlets ofMukomuko Regency inBengkulu,^[3] and by Kerinci diaspora communities in other regions of Indonesia, such asWest Sumatra andJava. Outside Indonesia, it is spoken in parts ofNegeri Sembilan andSelangor inMalaysia.^[4][5]

As of 2000, the number of Kerinci speakers was estimated at around 250,000.^[1] As aMalayo‑PolynesianMalayic language, Kerinci is closely related toMinangkabau andJambi Malay.^[6]

Kerinci shows substantial internal diversity, with approximately 130 sub‑dialects grouped into seven main dialects: Gunung Raya, Danau Kerinci, Sitinjau Laut, Sungai Penuh, Pembantu Sungai Tutung, Belui Air Hangat, and Gunung Kerinci.^[7] Dialectometric comparisons among these seven dialects show lexical differences of roughly 51%–65.5%. By comparison, differences between Kerinci and neighboringBengkulu andMinangkabau are around 81%–100%.^[2]

The Kerinci language is one of the many varieties of theMalayic languages. Linguists believe that the Malay language, one of the varieties of the Malayic languages, originally derived fromProto-Malayic, which was spoken in the area stretching fromWest Kalimantan to the northern coast ofBrunei around1000 BCE. Its ancestor,Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, is believed to have originated fromProto-Austronesian, which split around2000 BCE due to the large-scale expansion of theAustronesian people intoMaritime Southeast Asia from the island ofTaiwan.^[8]

The Kerinci language is a member of theAustronesian language family, which encompasses various languages in Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean, andMadagascar, as well as some languages inmainland Asia. Uniquely, the Kerinci language also shares some phonemes withAustroasiatic languages.^[9] Meanwhile,Malagasy,Filipino, theindigenous languages of Taiwan, andMāori are also members of the Austronesian language family. Although each language in this family is notmutually intelligible, their similarities are quite striking. Many basic words have remained almost unchanged from their common ancestor,Proto-Austronesian. There are numerous cognates found in basic words for kinship, health, body parts, and common animals. Even the words for numbers exhibit a remarkable level of similarity.^[10]

The Kerinci language is predominantly spoken by theKerinci people who inhabit the Kerinci highlands and surrounding areas, particularly aroundKerinci Seblat National Park. Administratively, these areas are within the city ofSungai Penuh andKerinci Regency, as well as parts ofMerangin andBungo regencies inJambi. InKerinci Regency, it is spoken in Pengasih Lama Village (Bukitkerman District); the villages of Koto Tuo Ujung Pasir and Seleman (Danau Kerinci District); Hiang Tinggi Village (Sitinjau Laut District); the villages of Koto Lebu and Koto Lolo (Pondong Tinggi District); Sungaiabu Village (Kerinci District); Belui Village (Air Hangat Timur District); and the villages of Mukai Tinggi and Sung Betung Ilir (Gunung Kerinci District).^[2] The language is also used in small parts of the neighboring province ofBengkulu, specifically inMukomuko Regency.^[3] Additionally, Kerinci people have migrated to theMalay Peninsula since the 19th century.^[11] InMalaysia, the Kerinci language is most widespread on the west coast of the peninsula—includingSelangor,Kuala Lumpur,Perak,Negeri Sembilan, andJohor—owing to proximity toSumatra.^[12] However, in Malaysia its status is threatened by gradual assimilation and acculturation into local language and culture, especially among theMalay community.^[12]

In the Kerinci highlands, Kerinci serves as the predominant means of daily communication across informal and formal settings, though it is used mainly in informal contexts.Indonesian functions as thelingua franca in government, education, and interethnic communication. As Indonesian usage expands with increasing educational opportunities, code‑switching between Kerinci and Indonesian has become commonplace.

The Kerinci language holds significant importance for its speakers inKerinci Regency and the city ofSungai Penuh inJambi, and it remains a key element of local culture.^[13] Amid growing multilingualism and multiethnic migration from other parts ofIndonesia, Kerinci speakers face challenges in preserving language integrity, and increased exposure to other languages has gradually influenced Kerinci usage.^[14] Consequently, thegovernment has undertaken efforts to support Kerinci. InSungai Penuh, Kerinci language courses have been made compulsory in the school curriculum.^[7] The Jambi provincial government has also initiated teacher‑training programs to enhance pedagogy and promote Kerinci, including instruction in writing and reading using theIncung script, composing and reciting Kerinci poetry, storytelling, public speaking, short‑story writing, traditional singing, and solo comedic performance—all conducted in Kerinci.^[15]

The number of dialects of the Kerinci language is debatable, as the subvarieties of the language have not been fully defined due to limited research on the geographic boundaries of the Kerinci region.^[16] According to Anwar et al. (1984), the Kerinci language is classified into three majordialect groups: the Upper Kerinci dialect (Kerinci Hulu), the Middle Kerinci dialect (Kerinci Tengah), and the Lower Kerinci dialect (Kerinci Hilir). In his research report, Usman (1990) suggests there are two dialects in the Kerinci language—the "i" dialect and the "ai" dialect—each with its own subvarieties. However, Amirruddin et al. (2003) state that there are approximately 177 dialects in the Kerinci language and that the number corresponds to the number of villages (dusun) inKerinci Regency.^[16]

The IndonesianAgency for Language Development and Cultivation identifies approximately 130 dialects of the Kerinci language, comprising seven major dialects: Gunung Raya, Danau Kerinci, Sitinjau Laut, Sungai Penuh, Pembantu Sungai Tutung, Air Hangat, and Gunung Kerinci.^[17][18] The Gunung Raya dialect is spoken in Pengasih Lama Village in Bukitkerman District. The Danau Kerinci dialect is spoken in Koto Tuo Ujung Pasir and Seleman villages in Danau Kerinci District. The Sitinjau Laut dialect is spoken in Hiang Tinggi Village in Sitinjau Laut District. The Sungai Penuh dialect is spoken in Koto Lebu and Koto Lolo villages in Pondong Tinggi District. The Pembantu Sungai Tutung dialect is spoken in Sungaiabu Village in Kerinci District. The Belui Air Hangat dialect is spoken in Belui Village in Air Hangat Timur District. The Gunung Kerinci dialect is spoken in Mukai Tinggi and Sung Betung Ilir villages in Gunung Kerinci District.^[18]

Kerinci dialects can differ greatly between villages even when they are very close, such as Tanah Kampung, Kemantan, and Dusun Baru, which are separated only by a river.^[19] Administratively, these three villages belong to different districts and regencies. Dusun Baru Lempur and Kemantan are located inKerinci Regency but in different districts, while Tanah Kampung is part ofSungai Penuh. Although part of Sungai Penuh, the inhabitants of Tanah Kampung use a distinct variety, the Tanah Kampung dialect. Kemantan Raya is in Air Hangat Timur District (Kerinci Regency), where the community uses the Tanah Kemantan dialect. Meanwhile, Dusun Baru Lempur is in Gunung Raya District (Kerinci Regency), and its inhabitants use the Dusun Baru dialect.^[19] This variety is not to be confused with another dialect spoken in Dusun Baru near the town centre of Sungai Penuh. Adjacent to the latter Dusun Baru speech area, the Sungai Penuh dialect is spoken, separated by a market from Pondok Tinggi. In turn, the Koto Renah dialect is spoken only a market away from Pondok Tinggi, while Koto Keras is almost contiguous with Koto Renah.^[20] Kerinci exhibits bothphonological andlexical differences across dialects; however, the dialects are generallymutually intelligible.^[19] One example of phonological variation involves the vowel[a] in word‑final position before[t]: in Sungai Penuh,[a] changes to[e]; in Pondok Tinggi, it becomes[uə]; in Lempur and Semurup, it remains[a]; and in Dusun Baru, it changes to[o].^[21] An illustration of phonological distinctions across Kerinci dialects can be observed in the pronunciation of the word "girl": in the Sungai Penuh dialect it may be/gadɔyh/ or/gadeih/; in Tanjung Pauh,/gadeh/ or/gadyh/; and in Koto Keras,/gaduh/ or/gadi/.^[13]

^[a]

In addition, the Kerinci language spoken inMalaysia has diverged from its original form and is no longer spoken as it is by native Kerinci speakers inIndonesia. In Malaysia, Kerinci has been significantly influenced by local languages such asMalay, and thus differs from the variety spoken in the Kerinci region of Jambi.^[23]

The table below illustrates the vowel inventories of the Pondok Tinggi dialect of Kerinci:^[24]

Pondok Tinggi/e/ and/o/ inclosed syllables have the allophones[ɛ] and[ɔ], respectively.^[26] The latter two vowels, however, are phonemic in the Sungai Penuh dialect.^[27]

Pondok Tinggi Kerinci has a rich inventory ofdiphthongs. Ernanda lists a total of 12diphthongs for the Pondok Tinggi dialect, given in the table below according to whether the sequences areopening or closing (i.e., whether they are moving towards open/low vowels or closed/high vowels).Diphthongs/ia/ and/ao/ are only found inopen syllables.^[28]

Sungai Penuh dialect has a fewer inventory of contrastivediphthongs, with a total of 7.^[30]

Alldiphthongs appear only in finalsyllables.^[27] Other Kerinci dialects may distinguish different sets ofvowel phonemes; cf. Tanjung Pauh Mudik with 9 plainvowels and 7diphthongs,^[32] or Semerap with 7–8 plain vowels^[b] and 8diphthongs.^[33]

There are nineteenconsonants in Pondok Tinggi Kerinci.^[34] The table below illustrates the consonant inventory of Pondok Tinggi:^[35]

Sungai Penuh consonant inventory is identical to that of Pondok Tinggi with the addition of/z/,^[30] which is a native phoneme (not borrowed) historically derived from medial/ŋs/ cluster, cf. StandardMalaykelongsong vs. Sungai Penuhkaluzɔŋ/kaluzon 'wrapper'.^[36]

Within a word, the presence of a voicedobstruent (/b/,/d/,/ɟ/, or/ɡ/) that is not preceded by ahomorganicnasal consonant alters its final rime. Words with a non‑prenasalized voiced obstruent are labeled "G‑words", while those that do not have such an obstruent are called "K‑words". This distinction is apparent in words that historically share the same final rimes, as shown in the table below (Pondok Tinggi examples).^[37]

As seen above, final vocalic rimes in Pondok Tinggi G‑words are generally moreclosed (higher) than those in K‑words.^[39] Historical *‑i corresponds to modern Pondok Tinggi‑ai/‑ei in K‑words and‑oi/‑i in G‑words, while historical *‑u corresponds to‑au/‑ou in K‑words and‑eu/‑u in G‑words. The wordpindah/pindoh, while containing a voiced obstruent, is not counted as a G‑word since the obstruent is preceded by a homorganic nasal. By contrast,gunduah/gundoh includes another voiced obstruent not in a nasal‑obstruent sequence, so it still undergoes the G‑word change.^[38]

This process is still productive in modern Pondok Tinggi Kerinci. For example, if thepassive prefixdi‑ (which contains a voiced obstruent) is attached to a K‑word, the word becomes a G‑word and its final rime changes—unless the initial consonant of theroot is also an obstruent, which blocks the change.^[40]

If a G‑word loses its voiced obstruent due to prefixation, it reverts to a K‑word and its final rime changes accordingly. This happens, for example, when theactive prefixN‑ alters the initial obstruent of a root to a homorganic nasal.^[41][c]

Words in various Kerinci dialects, including Pondok Tinggi and Sungai Penuh, exhibit phonologicallytruncated or clipped forms that are both semantically and grammatically interchangeable with their full forms.^[43][44] This contrasts with truncation in other traditional Malayic lects, which generally affects only certain classes of words (e.g.,aspect markers) or marks certain grammatical functions (e.g.,Jambi Malayvocativemᵇɪŋ 'hey goat!' fromkamᵇɪŋ 'goat').^[45] Compare the following examples from Sungai Penuh, where both truncated and full forms have the same glosses:^[46]

In Pondok Tinggi, truncation may affect mostparts of speech and all kinds of sounds. Ernanda observes that it generally occurs inunstressed syllables, frequently deleting the initial syllable or itsonset (particularly if bilabial). It can occur at the phrasal level, and for longer words there is a tendency to elide the word‑medial syllable. Truncation also interacts with the K‑/G‑word alternation: K‑words that have become G‑words via the addition of a voiced obstruent from prefixation do not revert to their original forms when truncated.^[47]

In the dialect of Tanjung Pauh Mudik, the truncatedmonosyllabic forms are very common in naturalistic speech, to the point that the full forms found in the oral literary register (such as that of thekunaung) are considered archaic by its speakers.^[45]

Many Kerinci lexemes exhibit phrasal alternation between an absolute (A) form and an oblique (O) form. In general terms, the absolute form appears in citation and prosodic/phrase‑final contexts, while the oblique form surfaces in non‑final or tightly bound phrasal environments (e.g., within noun phrases before modifiers/determiners). The alternation is typically realized through changes in the rime (vowel quality/height and, in some cases, coda), and interacts with other morphophonological processes described below.

Short phrases illustrate the distributional contrast (A in citation/final, O in tighter phrasal contexts); the exact conditioning may vary across Kerinci isolects:

The Kerinci language has a number of affixes that can join with a base word to form an affixed word.^[48] There are three types of affixes in Kerinci:prefixes,suffixes, andinfixes. Similar to other Malayic languages, Kerinci words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are "glued" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words.

The prefixes commonly used in Kerinci includeba-,di-,N-,ta-,pa-,ma-,ka-, andsa-.^[49] Examples of the prefixba-:

• ba- + lahai 'run' →balahoi 'to be running'
• ba- + tanak 'livestock' →batanak 'to raise livestock'
• ba- + buloy 'fur' →babuloy 'furry'
• ba- + sataw 'one' →basataw 'unite'

Examples of the prefixdi-:

• di- + bli 'buy' →dibli 'be bought'
• di- + bene 'right' →dibene 'be fixed'
• di- + rusak 'damage' →dirusak 'be damaged'
• di- + saain 'rival' →disaain 'be rivaled'

Examples of the prefixN-:

• N- + udud 'cigarette' →ngudud 'to smoke'
• N- + buka 'open' →mukak 'to open'
• N- + antak 'drop, send' →ngantak 'to drop off'
• N- + gawe 'do' →ngawe 'to do'

Examples of the prefixta-:

• ta- + panggang 'burn' →tapanggang 'burnt'
• ta- + panjang 'long' →tapanjang 'longest'
• ta- + pandak 'short' →tapandak 'shortest'
• ta- + lemak 'delicious' →talemak 'most delicious'

Examples of the prefixpa-:

• pa- + tinggay 'tall' →patinggay 'make taller'
• pa- + mace 'read' →pamace 'reader'
• pa- + minan 'drink' →paminan 'drinker'
• pa- + malayh 'lazy' →pamalayh 'lazy person'

Examples of the prefixma-:

• ma- + lumpak 'jump' →malumpak 'to jump'
• ma- + pahalawh 'smoothen' →mapahalawh 'to smoothen'
• ma- + rapak 'get close' →marapak 'to get close'
• ma- + inak 'remember' →mainak 'to remember'

Examples of the prefixka-:

• ka- + lapo 'hungry' →kalapo 'feeling hungry'
• ka- + dingin 'cold' →kadingin 'feeling cold'
• ka- + ragun 'doubtful' →karagun 'feeling doubtful'
• ka- + teih 'up' →kateih 'upstairs'

Examples of the prefixsa-:

• sa- + ilaêk 'good' →sailaêk 'as good as'
• sa- + dusen 'hamlet' →sadusen 'entire hamlet'
• sa- + paneh 'hot' →sapaneh 'as hot as'
• sa- + gantang 'bushel' →sagantang 'a bushel'

In Kerinci, there is only onesuffix,-lah.^[50] Examples of-lah (suffix bolded):

• Kainanlahjeleh‑jeleh sebelum ngambik kaputusan. 'Think calmly before making a decision'
• Datenglahsakalai‑sakalai kumah kamai. 'Come to our house once in a while'
• Biua woelahnyo nangaih luo kamar. 'Just let her cry outside the room'
• Mamok kamai ielahgepeuk nga gdon tinggai. 'Our uncle is fat and tall'

There is only oneinfix in Kerinci,-ar-.^[50] Examples (infix bolded):

• -ar- +ayei 'water' →barayei 'watery'
• -ar- +agi 'yeast' →baragi 'yeasty'
• -ar- +ameh 'gold' →barameh 'golden'
• -ar- +adeik 'younger sibling' →baradeik 'have a younger sibling'

Reduplication in Kerinci can be divided intonoun,verb,adjective, andnumeral reduplication.^[51]

Verb reduplication

• Repetitive action:maco‑maco 'to skim through';manjat‑manjat 'to climb around';aloy‑aloy 'to look around'
• Doing something with enjoyment:minan‑minan 'to drink casually';masak‑masak 'to cook casually';tidew‑tidew 'to sleep casually'
• Mutual action:batangoyh‑tangoyh 'to cry together';baragoyh‑ragoyh 'to share together'

Noun reduplication

• Plurality ('many'):anak‑anak 'kids';gloyh‑gloyh 'glasses';pisan‑pisan 'bananas'
• Resemblance ('like, resembling'):kudow‑kudow 'horse‑like';umoh‑umoh 'house‑like'

Adjective reduplication

• Plural/intensifying:gduê‑gduê 'very large';panja‑panja 'very long';putaêh‑putaêh 'very white'
• Atmosphere:bagduê‑gduê 'on a large scale'
• Condition/state:sakayk‑sakayk 'frequently sick';payah‑payah 'persistently difficult';pnak‑pnak 'continuously exhausted'

Numeral reduplication

• Formation/grouping:tigeê‑tigeê 'three‑by‑three';dueê‑dueê 'two‑by‑two'

In Kerinci, nouns can be divided into basic nouns, inflectional nouns, and derivative nouns.^[52]

Basic nouns (standalone, unmodified) can serve as subject or object:

• apuêk mley bajew 'dad is buying clothes'
• nyo makan pisa 'he is eating a banana'
• anok toh gadoyh 'that child is a girl'
• kakak minum ubuêk 'elder sibling is drinking medicine'

Inflectional nouns arise when a basic noun undergoes phoneme changes due to modification:

• pisa dalon pingga 'banana on a plate'
• pisan kunan toh dalon pingga 'that yellow banana is on a plate'
• jawow sitow 'cow over there'
• jawi putaêh sitow 'that white cow over there'

Derivative nouns are formed with the prefixpa- plus nouns, verbs, or adjectives:

• pa- + tani 'farm' →patani 'farmer'
• pa- + daguê 'trade' →padaguê 'merchant; trader'
• pa- + tulayh 'writer' →patulayh 'writer'
• pa- + baceê 'read' →pabaceê 'reader'

Pluralization of nouns can be expressed by reduplication or numerals:

• sawoh‑sawoh 'lots of farms';umah‑umah 'lots of houses'
• duwo uha 'two people';tujuh umoh 'seven houses'

Verbs are words that denote actions, e.g.,binen 'drink',tidew 'sleep',baceê 'read',tulayh 'write',agoyh 'give'.^[53] By form, verbs are divided into basic, inflectional, and derivative verbs.

Basic verbs (often imperative):

• tulayhlah 'write it';baceêlah 'read it';agoylah 'give it';tidewlah 'go sleep'

Inflectional verbs are basic verbs that become intransitive/transitive via prefixation (phoneme changes occur):

• nyontulayh 'he is writing'
• nyomanjak 'he is climbing'
• nyomacaê 'he is reading'

Derivative verbs originate from the combination ofN-,ma-,ba-,di-, orpa- with nouns, adjectives, or numerals:

• mangkao 'to hack using a hoe'
• babaoêk 'to get close with each other'
• nakawk 'to scare'
• malemah 'to weaken'

By form, adjectives are divided into basic and inflected adjectives; by function, they can be attributive or predicative.^[54] Adjectives can be modified by items such asnya 'the ... one/so ...',sanat/liwak 'very',laboyh 'more',palin 'most',samo 'same'.

Basic adjectives with modifiers:

• ita nya 'so black';tingay nya 'so tall';nya pandak 'the short one';lebih tinggay 'taller';nya barsoyh 'the clean one';samo brot 'same weight'

Inflected adjectives (phonemic change with intensifierssangat/liwak 'very'):

• sangat itan 'very black';sangat bersih 'very clean';liwak pande 'very short';liwak tinggay 'very tall'

Numerals in Kerinci, as in standardIndonesian, are divided into definite and indefinite types.^[55]

Definite numerals (specific quantities):

• sataw 'one';dueê 'two';mpak 'four';limao 'five';limo pulawh 'fifty';limo ratawh 'five hundred'

Indefinite numerals (non‑specific quantities):

• banyuêk 'many';dikoyk 'few; little'

Base numerals combine withpulawh 'tens',ratawh 'hundreds',ribu 'thousands',jutea 'millions':

• sapulawh 'ten';duwo ratawh 'two hundred';nan ribu 'six thousand';sajuta 'one million'

Cardinal numerals can undergo reduplication:

• sataw‑sataw 'one by one';dueê‑dueê 'two by two';tigeê‑tigeê 'three by three';na‑na 'six by six'

Numerals can also take the prefixpa-:

• padueê 'to make into two';patigeê 'to make into three';pampak 'to make into four';pabanyuêk 'to make into many'

Personal pronouns include:

- First person:akaw 'I';kamay,kitao 'we'^[56]- Second person (age/status‑sensitive):mpao 'you (male, younger)',kaaw 'you (female, younger)',ikao 'you (same age)',kayao 'you (older)'

 - Kin/status refinements:twao 'eldest sibling',twaruwao 'eldest uncle',taruwao 'eldest aunt';tngah 'second eldest sibling',twarengah 'second eldest uncle',tarengah 'second eldest aunt';nsaw 'youngest (family)',twansaw 'youngest uncle',tansaw 'youngest aunt'

- Third person:no 'he/she';diyuê 'he/she (respectful)';uha 'they'

Interrogatives:apo 'what';sapo 'who'

Demonstratives (objects):itoh 'that';ineh 'this'

The Kerinci language has extensively borrowed words from other languages, particularlyMinangkabau andIndonesian.^[57] Indonesian is the national language of Indonesia and serves as the language of communication in official settings, such as government institutions and schools. As education levels rise, there is greater exposure to Indonesian, resulting in Kerinci increasingly absorbingloanwords from Indonesian. The significant number of loanwords from Minangkabau is due to historical contact between Kerinci and Minangkabau speakers. These two languages are spoken in contiguous areas, and from the beginning until now, many people fromWest Sumatra have migrated to Kerinci to establish businesses, work, and even marry native Kerinci speakers. Additionally, Minangkabau is commonly used inSungai Penuh, the central trade hub in Kerinci. Almost all shopkeepers in Sungai Penuh speak Minangkabau.^[57] Lastly, Kerinci is also related toJambi Malay, which serves as thelingua franca in eastern Jambi. It is estimated that up to 80% of Kerinci terms have similarity with Jambi Malay.^[6]

A small number of Kerinci terms have also been influenced byDutch, with words likeuto "car", derived from Dutchauto, andpotlot "pencil", derived from Dutchpotlood.^[58]

Below are examples of commonly used Kerinci words along with their Indonesian and English translations:

The following text is an excerpt from the official translation of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights inIndonesian and Kerinci, along with the original declaration in English:

Historically, the Kerinci language was written in theIncung script (Suhat Incoung). The Incung script is the only known indigenous script attested in centralSumatra, related to both the Lampung script (used for theLampung language) and the Rencong script (used for theRejang language of southern Sumatra). In Kerinci,incung means "slanted" or "tilted".^[61] The script is composed of straight lines, broken and tilted segments, and curves, written at a slight angle. It is regarded as a cultural legacy of the Kerinci people and was used to record ancestral history, literary prose (romantic and elegiac), customary agreements, and spells.^[62]

Among theKerinci people, it is commonly held that the emergence of the script and literature reflects a holistic cultural expression encompassing nature, humanity, and divinity. As a result, texts on buffalo horns,bamboo, bark, cloth, and paper are treated as sacred and revered, a view that remains influential in Kerinci cultural life. From the 19th century onward, such manuscripts have been kept as sacred objects. The Incung script continued in active use until around1825. With the onset of the 20th century and thespread of Islam in Kerinci, use of Incung gradually declined as a medium of written communication, in part due to the rising influence ofIslamic culture and the shift toward theJawi script (Arab–Malay) for writing.^[63]

Today, few people remain who can read and write the Incung script, placing many manuscripts at risk of being forgotten by future generations.^[64] Factors include declining familiarity with the script and the continued practice of safeguarding manuscripts as revered heirlooms, which can limit access for study and transmission. Yet these texts contain moral, social, cultural, historical, and educational values that remain relevant.

Incung manuscripts are found in private homes and in public collections such as the Jambi State Museum and theNational Museum of Indonesia inJakarta, and abroad inLeiden (theNetherlands). InJambi, interest from cultural institutions and government bodies has grown, with efforts focused on transliteration into theLatin script, research, school-based literacy programmes in Incung reading and writing, and the use of Incung on government and street signage, among other initiatives.^[65][15]

At present, Kerinci is written in several scripts: the original Incung, theLatin, andJawi. Latin predominates due to its nationwide use inIndonesia. Incung is primarily reserved for cultural practice and ritual contexts, while Jawi is used in religious settings and Islamic educational institutions such aspesantren.^[66]

The Kerinci community frequently usesproverbs andidioms to convey social values and norms.^[67] For example, the proverbbajalan kincie karno ayiek, bagoyang dahan karno angin ("Walking mill because of water; swaying branches because of wind") illustrates cause and effect, whileapo digaduh pengayuh samo di tangan biduk samo di aek ("Sitting equal, standing equal") indicates shared rights and responsibilities.^[67] Another saying,bak membelah betung, sebelah dipijak, sebelah lagi diangkat tinggi‑tinggi ("Like splitting bamboo, one part is stepped on while the other is lifted high"), characterizes self‑interest at the expense of others.Pantun, a Malay‑world oral poetic form, is also widespread in Kerinci performance and everyday discourse.

Below is an example of a Kerincipantun with Indonesian and English translations:^[68]

Kerinci is also known for itsfolklore, locally calledkunaung.^[69]Kunaung may be narrated, sung, or performed with accompaniment; common instruments include therebana and drum, with occasional use of flute andgong. Some performances use improvised percussion, such as empty tin cans.^[69]Kunaung storytellers are noted for expressive delivery and immersion in the narrative tradition; accounts describe performers as guided by spirits or fairies, heightening audience engagement with the unfolding story.^[69] Examples includePutri Kemilau Air Emas,Orang Mudo Si Jaru Pantang, andSemegang Tunggal from Sitinjau Laut District;Bujang Suanggau andBujang Buje from Sungai Penuh District;Si Jaru Panta,Si Kembang Payung Paya,Siyo‑Siyo Kau Tupai,Puti Limo,Puti Cikkettung, andBurung Kuwa from Danau Kerinci District; andNyik Kileng from Gunung Kerinci District.^[69]

• Ernanda (2017).Phrasal alternation in Kerinci (PhD dissertation). Leiden: Universiteit Leiden.hdl:1887/49206.
• Ernanda (2021)."Some notes on the Semerap dialect of Kerinci and its historical development".Wacana.22 (1):58–80.doi:10.17510/wacana.v22i1.978.
• McKinnon, Timothy; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2011). "Object Agreement and 'Pro-Drop' in Kerinci Malay".Language.87 (4).Linguistic Society of America:715–750.doi:10.1353/lan.2011.0092.S2CID 144479579.
• Nikelas, Syahwin; Amir, Zainuddin; Rusmali, Marah; Usman, Amir Hakim; Anwar, Jolsnidar (1981).Morfologi dan Sintaksis Bahasa Kerinci [Morphology and Syntax of the Kerinci Language](PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta:Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.
• Nikelas, Syahwin; Rusmali, Marah; Ayub, Asni; Kasim, Yuslina; Usman, Amir Hakim (1985).Kata Tugas Bahasa Kerinci [Function Words in the Kerinci Language](PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta:Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.
• Prentice, David J.; Usman, Amir Hakim (1978). "Kerinci sound-changes and phonotactics". In Wurm, S.A.; Carrington, L. (eds.).Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. C61. Canberra:Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University. pp. 121–163.doi:10.15144/PL-C61.121.
• Steinhauer, Hein (2002)."More (on) Kerinci sound-changes"(PDF). In K. Alexander Adelaar; Robert Blust (eds.).Between Worlds: Linguistic Papers in Memory of David John Prentice. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. 529. Canberra:Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University. pp. 149–176.
• Steinhauer, Hein (2018)."Sound-changes and loanwords in Sungai Penuh Kerinci".Wacana: Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia.19 (2):375–407.doi:10.17510/wacana.v19i2.708.S2CID 135209683.
• Steinhauer, Hein; Usman, Amir Hakim (1978). "Notes on the morphemics of Kerinci (Sumatra)". In Wurm, S.A.; Carrington, L. (eds.).Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. C61.Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University. pp. 483–502.doi:10.15144/PL-C61.483.
• Usman, A. Hakim (1985).Kamus Umum Kerinci–Indonesia [Kerinci–Indonesian Dictionary](PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta:Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.
• Usman, Amir Hakim (1988).Fonologi dan Morfologi Bahasa Kerinci Dialek Sungai Penuh [Phonology and Morphology of the Sungai Penuh Dialect of Kerinci Language] (PhD dissertation) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia.
• van Reijn, Eric (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages".Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.31 (2):130–138.JSTOR 41492089.
• Yanti; McKinnon, Timothy; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2018). "The phonological basis of syntactic change in Kerinci".Oceanic Linguistics.57 (2).University of Hawaiʻi Press:433–483.doi:10.1353/ol.2018.0018.S2CID 149686433.
• Yanti; McKinnon, Timothy; Mudra, Heri; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2017). "The poetic and linguistic structure of a kunaung: The story of Saripanta".NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Languages in and Around Indonesia.63:81–99.doi:10.15026/91752.

• McKinnon, Timothy (2011).The Morphology and Morphosyntax of Kerinci Word Shape Alternations (PhD dissertation). Newark: University of Delaware.
• McKinnon, Timothy; Yanti; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2012).Divergent Varieties of Malay in Upstream Jambi(PDF). International Symposium on Malay/Indonesian Linguistics (ISMIL 16).
• McKinnon, Timothy A."What is Kerinci? A closer look at the geography of its core properties"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2015-06-15.
• van Reijn, Eric (2001).Sijaro Panta (A Folktale from Kumun, Kerinci): Text, Translation, Vocabulary, and Sketch of Kumun Phonology(PDF). NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Indonesian and Other Languages in Indonesia. Vol. 48. pp. 0–57.

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