This article is about the NASA launch center in Florida. For the site of other launch centers once known as "Cape Kennedy", seeCape Canaveral Space Force Station.
Though the first Apollo flights and allProject Mercury andProject Gemini flights took off from the then-Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, the launches were managed by KSC and its previous organization, the Launch Operations Directorate.[5][6] Starting with the fourth Gemini mission, the NASA launch control center in Florida (Mercury Control Center, later theLaunch Control Center) began handing off control of the vehicle to theMission Control Center inHouston, shortly after liftoff; in prior missions it held control throughout the entire mission.[7][8]
Additionally, the center manages launch of robotic and commercial crew missions and researches food production andin-situ resource utilization for off-Earth exploration.[9] Since 2010, the center has worked to become a multi-userspaceport through industry partnerships,[10] even adding a new launch pad (LC-39C) in 2015.
PresidentJohn F. Kennedy's 1961 goal of a crewed lunar landing by 1970 required an expansion of launch operations. On July 1, 1962, the Launch Operations Directorate was separated from MSFC to become theLaunch Operations Center (LOC). Also, Cape Canaveral was inadequate to host the new launch facility design required for the mammoth 363-foot (111 m) tall, 7,500,000-pound-force (33,000 kN) thrustSaturn V rocket, which would be assembled vertically in a large hangar and transported on a mobile platform to one of several launch pads. Therefore, the decision was made to build a new LOC site located adjacent to Cape Canaveral onMerritt Island.[13]
In 1961, NASA formally announced its intent to acquire approximately 88,000 acres of land (about 138 square miles) along Florida’s east coast, marking the beginning of what would become a much larger acquisition effort.[14] NASA began land acquisition in 1962; in the years-long effort, NASA bought title to 131 square miles (340 km2) and negotiated with the state of Florida for an additional 87 square miles (230 km2).[15] The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers oversaw the land acquisition process. They directly negotiated with property owners before resorting to condemnations when negotiations were inefficient.[16] Much of the land NASA acquired was in agricultural use, particularly for citrus farming. In Merritt Island, citrus groves were purchased by mid-1963. Still, in an effort to manage the transition, NASA allowed many farmers to lease back their properties temporarily, allowing them to operate and reap harvest from the groves until summer 1964. To regulate activity in what was newly federally acquired land, all personnel required clearance to enter the controlled zone and special security badges were even issued to grove workers.[17][18]
The major buildings in KSC's Industrial Area were designed by architectCharles Luckman.[19] Construction began in November 1962, and Kennedy visited the site twice in 1962, and again just a week beforehis assassination on November 22, 1963.[20]
On November 29, 1963, the facility was named by President Lyndon B. Johnson underExecutive Order 11129.[21][22] Johnson's order joined both the civilian LOC and the military Cape Canaveral station ("the facilities of Station No. 1 of the Atlantic Missile Range") under the designation "John F. Kennedy Space Center", spawning some confusion joining the two in the public mind. NASA administratorJames E. Webb clarified this by issuing a directive stating theKennedy Space Center name applied only to the LOC, while the Air Force issued a general order renaming the military launch siteCape Kennedy Air Force Station.[23]
Before NASA's acquisition, the region consisted of a landscape that included swampland, citrus groves, and coastal beaches — features that are typical of Florida’s undeveloped east coast. Parts of the land had to be dredged to support the construction of the Center's facilities. In addition to environmental transformation, the acquisition also led to the displacement of several small communities, including the towns of Shiloh and Allenhurst, which were completely enveloped by NASA.[25][26] KSC’s Environmental Management Branch has rescued over 100 mangrove seedlings during a living-shoreline restoration project, replanting them to stabilize the shoreline and reduce erosion while supporting local wildlife.[27] KSC developed an “Indian River Lagoon Health Initiative Plan” in coordination with the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore to monitor and restore ecological health through seagrass mapping, manatee and bird surveys, and shoreline resiliency projects.[28] Within its 140,000-acre property, KSC includes a variety of habitats — such as coastal dunes, saltwater estuaries, marshes, pine flatwoods, and hardwood hammocks — which support more than 1,500 species of plants and animals, including dozens of federally or state‑listed species.[29]
From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches, including the ten remaining Apollo missions after Apollo 7. The first of two uncrewed flights,Apollo 4 (Apollo-Saturn 501) on November 9, 1967, was also the first rocket launch from KSC. The Saturn V's first crewed launch on December 21, 1968, wasApollo 8's lunar orbiting mission. The next two missions tested theLunar Module:Apollo 9 (Earth orbit) andApollo 10 (lunar orbit).Apollo 11, launched from Pad A on July 16, 1969, made the first Moon landing on July 20. The Apollo 11 launch included crewmembersNeil Armstrong,Michael Collins, andBuzz Aldrin, and attracted a record-breaking 650 million television viewers.[30]Apollo 12 followed four months later. From 1970 to 1972, the Apollo program concluded at KSC with the launches of missions 13 through 17.
On May 14, 1973, the lastSaturn V launch put the Skylab space station in orbit from Pad 39A.[31] By this time, the Cape Kennedy pads 34 and 37 used for the Saturn IB were decommissioned, so Pad 39B was modified to accommodate the Saturn IB, and used to launch three crewed missions to Skylab that year, as well as the final Apollo spacecraft for theApollo–Soyuz Test Project in 1975.[32]
ShuttleDiscovery launching from Pad 39A onSTS-60, February 3, 1994ShuttleAtlantis is moved to Pad 39A for the 1990 launch ofSTS-36.The Space ShuttleAtlantis (STS-129) is seen on launch pad 39A at the NASA Kennedy Space Center shortly after the rotating service structure was rolled back on November 15, 2009.
As the Space Shuttle was being designed, NASA received proposals for building alternative launch-and-landing sites at locations other than KSC, which demanded study. KSC had important advantages, including its existing facilities; location on theIntracoastal Waterway; and its southern latitude, which gives a velocity advantage to missions launched in easterly near-equatorial orbits. Disadvantages included: its inability to safely launch military missions intopolar orbit, since spent boosters would be likely to fall on the Carolinas or Cuba; corrosion from the salt air; and frequent cloudy or stormy weather. Although building a new site atWhite Sands Missile Range in New Mexico was seriously considered, NASA announced its decision in April 1972 to use KSC for the shuttle.[33] Since the Shuttle could not be landed automatically or by remote control, the launch ofColumbia on April 12, 1981 for its first orbital missionSTS-1, was NASA's first crewed launch of a vehicle that had not been tested in prior uncrewed launches.
In 1976, the VAB's south parking area was the site of Third Century America, a science and technology display commemorating theU.S. bicentennial. Concurrent with this event, the U.S. flag was painted on the south side of the VAB. During the late 1970s, LC-39 was reconfigured to support the Space Shuttle. TwoOrbiter Processing Facilities were built near the VAB as hangars with a third added in the 1980s.
KSC's 2.9-mile (4.7 km)Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) was the orbiters' primary end-of-mission landing site, although the first KSC landing did not take place until the tenth flight, whenChallenger completedSTS-41-B on February 11, 1984; the primary landing site until then wasEdwards Air Force Base in California, subsequently used as a backup landing site. The SLF also provided areturn-to-launch-site (RTLS) abort option, which was not utilized. The SLF is among the longest runways in the world.[34]
Beginning in 1958, NASA and military worked side by side on robotic mission launches (previously referred to as unmanned),[35] cooperating as they broke ground in the field. In the early 1960s, NASA had as many as two robotic mission launches a month. The frequent number of flights allowed for quick evolution of the vehicles, as engineers gathered data, learned from anomalies and implemented upgrades. In 1963, with the intent of KSCELV work focusing on the ground support equipment and facilities, a separate Atlas/Centaur organization was formed under NASA's Lewis Center (nowGlenn Research Center (GRC)), taking that responsibility from the Launch Operations Center (aka KSC).[8]
Though almost all robotics missions launched from theCape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS), KSC "oversaw the final assembly and testing of rockets as they arrived at the Cape."[8] In 1965, KSC's Unmanned Launch Operations directorate became responsible for all NASA uncrewed launch operations, including those atVandenberg Space Force Base. From the 1950s to 1978, KSC chose the rocket and payload processing facilities for all robotic missions launching in the U.S., overseeing their near launch processing and checkout. In addition to government missions, KSC performed this service for commercial and foreign missions also, though non-U.S. government entities provided reimbursement. NASA also funded Cape Canaveral Space Force Station launch pad maintenance and launch vehicle improvements.
All this changed with theCommercial Space Launch Act of 1984, after which NASA only coordinated its own andNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ELV launches. Companies were able to "operate their own launch vehicles"[8] and utilize NASA's launch facilities. Payload processing handled by private firms also started to occur outside of KSC. Reagan's 1988 space policy furthered the movement of this work from KSC to commercial companies.[36] That same year, launch complexes on Cape Canaveral Air Force Force Station started transferring from NASA toAir Force Space Command management.[8]
In the 1990s, though KSC was not performing the hands-on ELV work, engineers still maintained an understanding of ELVs and had contracts allowing them insight into the vehicles so they could provide knowledgeable oversight. KSC also worked on ELV research and analysis and the contractors were able to utilize KSC personnel as a resource for technical issues. KSC, with the payload and launch vehicle industries, developed advances in automation of the ELV launch and ground operations to enable competitiveness of U.S. rockets against the global market.[8]
In 1998, theLaunch Services Program (LSP) formed at KSC, pulling together programs (and personnel) that already existed at KSC, GRC,Goddard Space Flight Center, and more to manage the launch of NASA and NOAA robotic missions. Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and VAFB are the primary launch sites for LSP missions, though other sites are occasionally used. LSP payloads such as theMars Science Laboratory have been processed at KSC before being transferred to a launch pad on Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.
As theInternational Space Station modules design began in the early 1990s, KSC began to work with other NASA centers and international partners to prepare for processing before launch onboard the Space Shuttles. KSC utilized its hands-on experience processing the 22Spacelab missions in theOperations and Checkout Building to gather expectations of ISS processing. These experiences were incorporated into the design of theSpace Station Processing Facility (SSPF), which began construction in 1991. The Space Station Directorate formed in 1996. KSC personnel were embedded at station module factories for insight into their processes.[8]
From 1997 to 2007, KSC planned and performedon the ground integration tests and checkouts of station modules: three Multi-Element Integration Testing (MEIT) sessions and the Integration Systems Test (IST). Numerous issues were found and corrected that would have been difficult to nearly impossible to do on-orbit.
In January 2025, NASA’s Kennedy Space Center signed a memorandum of understanding with the University of Florida, University of Central Florida, and Embry‑Riddle Aeronautical University to form the Florida University Space Research Consortium, advancing Moon-to-Mars research.[39] A Systems Engineering & Integration (SE&I) bootcamp, backed by a three-year grant, was launched at KSC in 2025 by FAMU‑FSU College of Engineering in partnership with NASA to train 30 professionals in systems engineering for the Artemis campaign.[40]
The second “SpaceU Symposium” was held in November 2025 at UCF, involving KSC researchers, university students, and space industry leaders to showcase innovation, research, and job opportunities in partnership with NASA.[41]
The Florida University Space Research Consortium is part of a broader Florida Space Grant program that includes dozens of universities, which provides research funding and strong ties between KSC and higher education institutions to support NASA’s missions.[42]
Today KSC continues to process ISS payloads from across the world before launch along with developing its experiments for on orbit.[43] The proposedLunar Gateway would be manufactured and processed at theSpace Station Processing Facility.
Artemis I ICPS at Kennedy Space CenterSAGE III at Space Station Processing FacilityNASA scientist, observe ground control experiments in the Veggie Lab at NASA's Kennedy Space Center
The following are current programs and initiatives at Kennedy Space Center:[44]
Facilities at the Kennedy Space Center are directly related to its mission to launch and recover missions. Facilities are available to prepare and maintain spacecraft and payloads for flight.[51][52] The Headquarters (HQ) Building houses offices for the Center Director, library, film and photo archives, a print shop and security.[53] When the KSC Library first opened, it was part of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. However, in 1965, the library moved into three separate sections in the newly opened NASA headquarters before eventually becoming a single unit in 1970.[54] The library contains over four million items related to the history and the work at Kennedy. As one of ten NASA center libraries in the country, their collection focuses on engineering, science, and technology. The archives contain planning documents, film reels, and original photographs covering the history of KSC. The library is not open to the public but is available for KSC, Space Force, and Navy employees who work on site.[54]
The center operated its own 17-mile (27 km)short-line railroad.[58] This operation was discontinued in 2015, with the sale of its final two locomotives. A third had already been donated to a museum. The line was costing $1.3 million annually to maintain.[59]
Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout BuildingPre-made ISS modules in the Space Station Processing FacilityBlue Origin's manufacturing facility near KSC visitor complex
TheNeil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building (O&C) (previously known as the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building) is a historic site on theU.S. National Register of Historic Places dating back to the 1960s and was used to receive, process, and integrate payloads for the Gemini and Apollo programs, the Skylab program in the 1970s, and for initial segments of the International Space Station through the 1990s.[60] The Apollo and Space Shuttle astronauts would board theastronaut transfer van to launch complex 39 from the O&C building.[61]
The three-story, 457,000-square-foot (42,500 m2)Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) consists of two enormous processing bays, an airlock, operational control rooms, laboratories, logistics areas and office space for support of non-hazardous Space Station and Shuttle payloads toISO 14644-1 class 5 standards.[62] Opened in 1994, it is the largest factory building in the KSC industrial area.
The Vertical Processing Facility (VPF) features a 71-by-38-foot (22 by 12 m) door where payloads that are processed in the vertical position are brought in and manipulated with two overhead cranes and a hoist capable of lifting up to 35 short tons (32 t).[63]
TheHypergolic Maintenance and Checkout Facility (HMCA) comprises three buildings that are isolated from the rest of the industrial area because of the hazardous materials handled there.Hypergolic-fueled modules that made up the Space Shuttle Orbiter'sreaction control system, orbital maneuvering system and auxiliary power units were stored and serviced in the HMCF.[64]
ThePayload Hazardous Servicing Facility (PHSF) contains a 70-by-110-foot (21 by 34 m) service bay, with a 100,000-pound (45,000 kg), 85-foot (26 m) hook height. It also contains a 58-by-80-foot (18 by 24 m) payload airlock. Its temperature is maintained at 70 °F (21 °C).[66]
TheBlue Origin rocket manufacturing facility is located immediately south of the KSC visitor complex. Completed in 2019, it serves as the company's factory for the manufacture of New Glenn orbital rockets.[67]
Since December 1968, all launch operations have been conducted fromlaunch pads A andB at LC-39. Both pads are on the ocean, 3 miles (4.8 km) east of the VAB. From 1969 to 1972, LC-39 was the "Moonport" for all six Apollo crewed Moon landing missions using the Saturn V,[68] and was used from 1981 to 2011 for allSpace Shuttle launches.
Human missions to theMoon required the large three-stage Saturn V rocket, which was 363 feet (111 meters) tall and 33 feet (10 meters) in diameter. At KSC, Launch Complex 39 was built on Merritt Island to accommodate the new rocket. Construction of the $800 million project began in November 1962. LC-39 pads A and B were completed by October 1965 (planned Pads C, D and E were canceled), the VAB was completed in June 1965, and the infrastructure by late 1966.
An economic impact report indicates that companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin are developing campus-like facilities at KSC’s Launch Complex 39A and Exploration Park, fostering integrated manufacturing, testing, and launch operations on-site.[69]
The complex includes:
theVehicle Assembly Building (VAB), a 130,000,000 cubic feet (3,700,000 m3) hangar capable of holding four Saturn Vs. The VAB was the largest structure in the world by volume when completed in 1965.[70]
atransporter capable of carrying 5,440 tons along acrawlerway to either of two launch pads;
Launch Complex 48 (LC-48) is a multi-user launch site under construction for small launchers and spacecraft. It will be located betweenLaunch Complex 39A andSpace Launch Complex 41, with LC-39A to the north and SLC-41 to the south.[71] LC-48 will be constructed as a "clean pad" to support multiple launch systems with differing propellant needs. While initially only planned to have a single pad, the complex is capable of being expanded to two at a later date.[72]
As a part of promoting commercial space industry growth in the area and the overall center as a multi-user spaceport,[73][74] KSC leases some of its properties. Here are some major examples:
Gate to the KSC Visitor Complex in 2006;Explorer, aSpace Shuttle mock-up, is in the background
The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, operated byDelaware North since 1995, has a variety of exhibits, artifacts, displays and attractions on the history and future of human and robotic spaceflight. Bus tours of KSC originate from here. The complex also includes the separateApollo/Saturn V Center, north of the VAB and theUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame, six miles west nearTitusville. There were 1.5 million visitors in 2009. It had some 700 employees.[79]
It was announced on May 29, 2015, that the Astronaut Hall of Fame exhibit would be moved from its current location to another location within the Visitor Complex to make room for an upcoming high-tech attraction entitled "Heroes and Legends". The attraction, designed by Orlando-based design firm Falcon's Treehouse, opened November 11, 2016.[80]
In March 2016, the visitor center unveiled the new location of the iconic countdown clock at the complex's entrance; previously, the clock was located with a flagpole at the press site. The clock was originally built and installed in 1969 and listed with the flagpole in theNational Register of Historic Places in January 2000.[81] In 2019, NASA celebrated the 50th anniversary of theApollo program, and the launch of Apollo 10 on May 18.[82] In summer of 2019,Lunar Module 9 (LM-9) was relocated to theApollo/Saturn V Center as part of an initiative to rededicate the center and celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Apollo Program.
TheRotation, Processing and Surge Facility (RPSF) is responsible for the preparation ofsolid rocket booster segments for transportation to theVehicle Assembly Building (VAB). The RPSF was built in 1984 to perform SRB operations that had previously been conducted in high bays 2 and 4 of the VAB at the beginning of theSpace Shuttle program. It was used until theSpace Shuttle's retirement, and will be used in the future by theSpace Launch System[87] (SLS) andOmegA rockets.
A Mercury Redstone rocket on display at Gate 3 was toppled by Hurricane Frances on September 7, 2004.
Florida's peninsular shape and temperature contrasts between land and ocean provide ideal conditions for electrical storms, earning Central Florida the reputation as "lightning capital of the United States".[88][89] This makes extensivelightning protection and detection systems necessary to protect employees, structures and spacecraft on launch pads.[90] On November 14, 1969,Apollo 12 was struck by lightning just after lift-off from Pad 39A, but the flight continued safely. The most powerful lightning strike recorded at KSC occurred at LC-39B on August 25, 2006, whileshuttleAtlantis was being prepared forSTS-115. NASA managers were initially concerned that the lightning strike caused damage toAtlantis, but none was found.[91]
On September 7, 2004,Hurricane Frances directly hit the area with sustained winds of 70 miles per hour (110 km/h) and gusts up to 94 miles per hour (151 km/h), the most damaging storm to date. The Vehicle Assembly Building lost 1,000 exterior panels, each 3.9 feet (1.2 m) x 9.8 feet (3.0 m) in size. This exposed 39,800 sq ft (3,700 m2) of the building to the elements. Damage occurred to the south and east sides of the VAB. The shuttle's Thermal Protection System Facility suffered extensive damage. The roof was partially torn off and the interior suffered water damage. Several rockets on display in the center were toppled.[92] Further damage to KSC was caused byHurricane Wilma in October 2005.
The conservative estimate by NASA is that the Space Center will experience 5 to 8 inches ofsea level rise by the 2050s. Launch Complex 39A, the site of the Apollo 11 launch, is the most vulnerable to flooding, and has a 14% annual risk of flooding beginning in 2020.[93][94]
In addition to being frequently featured in documentaries, Kennedy Space Center has been portrayed on film many times. Some studio movies have even gained access and filmed scenes within the gates of the space center. If extras are needed in those scenes, space center employees are recruited (employees use personal time during filming). Films with scenes at KSC include:[119]
KSC is also one of the two primary settings of the 1965–1970 television seriesI Dream of Jeannie (along with a home in nearbyCocoa Beach), though it was filmed entirely inLos Angeles.
^Charles D. Benson; William Barnaby Faherty."Land, Lots of Land – Much of It Marshy".Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. NASA. Archived fromthe original on July 14, 2019. RetrievedAugust 27, 2009.
^Lipartito, Kenneth; Butler, R. Orville (2007).A history of the Kennedy Space Center. University Press of Florida.ISBN9780813068343.
^"The Front Page Archive".Doing Business With Kennedy. NASA. March 26, 2015. Archived fromthe original on November 17, 2015. RetrievedNovember 5, 2015.
^Oliver, John E. (2005).Encyclopedia of world climatology. Springer. p. 452.ISBN978-1-4020-3264-6.
^"Lightning: FAQ".UCAR Communications. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived fromthe original on March 16, 2010. RetrievedJune 17, 2010.
Middleton, Sallie. "Space Rush: Local Impact of Federal Aerospace Programs on Brevard and Surrounding Counties,"Florida Historical Quarterly, Fall 2008, Vol. 87 Issue 2, pp. 258–289.
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