Kendo (Japanese:剣道,Hepburn:Kendō,lit.'sword way' or'sword path' or'way of the sword')[1] is amodern Japanese martial art, descended fromkenjutsu (one of the oldJapanese martial arts,swordsmanship), that uses bamboo swords (shinai) as well as protective armor (bōgu).[2] It began as samurai warriors' customary swordsmanship exercises,[3] and today, it is widely practiced within Japan and has spread to many other nations across the world.
Swordsmen in Japan established schools ofkenjutsu[4] (the ancestor of kendo). These continued for centuries and form the basis of kendo practice today.[5] Formal kendo exercises known askata were developed several centuries ago askenjutsu practice for warriors. They are still studied today, in a modified form.[6]
The introduction ofbamboo practice swords andarmor to sword training is attributed to Naganuma Shirōzaemon Kunisato (長沼 四郎左衛門 国郷, 1688–1767) during theShotoku Era (1711–1715). Naganuma developed the use of this armor and established a training method using bamboo swords.[7]
Yamada Heizaemon Mitsunori (Ippūsai) (山田平左衛門光徳(一風斎), 1638–1718), third son of Naganuma and the eighth headmaster of theKashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryū Kenjutsu, is credited with improving the art with Japanesewooden andbamboo swords, according to his gravestone's inscription. He is also credited with refining the armor by adding a metal grille to the headpiece (面;men) and thick cotton protective coverings to the gauntlets that cover the wrists and hands (小手;kote).[8] Naganuma Sirozaemon Kunisato (長沼四郎左衛門国郷, 1688–1767) inherited the tradition from his father, Heizaemon, in 1708, and the two of them collaborated to improve what would become modern kendo training armor.[7][8]
Shūsaku Narimasa Chiba(千葉 周作 成政, 1792–1855), founder of theHokushin Ittō-ryū Hyōhō (北辰一刀流兵法), introducedgekiken (撃剣) (full-contact duels with bamboo swords and training armor) to the curriculum oftradition arts in the 1820s. Due to the large number of students of the Hokushin Ittō-ryū Hyōhō at the end of theEdo period, the use of bamboo swords and armor as a form of practice became popular. Modern kendo techniques, such as Suriage-Men and Oikomi-Men, were originallyHokushin Ittō-ryū techniques, were named by Chiba Shūsaku.[7][9][10][11] After theMeiji Restoration in the late 1800s,Sakakibara Kenkichi popularized publicgekiken for commercial gain, resulting in increased interest in kendo and kenjutsu.[12][13]
In 1876, five years after a voluntary surrender of swords, the government banned the use of swords by the survivingsamurai and initiatedsword hunts.[14] Meanwhile, in an attempt to standardize the sword styles (kenjutsu) used by policemen,Kawaji Toshiyoshi recruited swordsmen from various schools to come up with a unified swordsmanship style.[15] This led to the rise of theBattotai (抜刀隊, lit.Drawn Sword Corps), consisting mainly of sword-wielding policemen. However, it proved difficult to integrate all sword arts, leading to a compromise of ten practice moves (kata) for police training. This integration effort led to the development of modern kendo.[15] In 1878, Kawaji wrote a book on swordsmanship,Gekiken Saikō-ron (Revitalizing Swordsmanship), stressing sword styles should not disappear with modernization, but should be integrated as necessary skills for the police. He draws a particular example from his experience with theSatsuma Rebellion. The Junsa Kyōshūjo (Patrolman's Training Institute), founded in 1879, provided a curriculum that allowed policemen to studygekiken during their off-hours. In the same year, Kawaji wrote another book on swordsmanship,Kendo Saikō-ron (Revitalizing Kendo), defending the significance of such sword art training for the police.[16] While Junsa Kyōshūjo remained active only until 1881, the police continued to support such practice.
TheDai Nippon Butoku Kai (DNBK) was established in 1895 to promote martial arts in Japan. It changed the name of the sporting form of swordsmanship,gekiken, (Kyūjitai:擊劍 andShinjitai:撃剣, "hitting sword") tokendō in 1920.[5][17]
Kendo (along with other martial arts) was banned in Japan in 1946 by the occupying powers. This was part of "the removal and exclusion from public life of militaristic and ultra-nationalistic persons" in response to the wartime militarization of martial arts instruction in Japan. The DNBK was also disbanded. Kendo was allowed to return to the curriculum in 1950, first as "shinai competition" (竹刀競技,shinai kyōgi) and then as kendo in 1952.[18][19]
TheAll Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF or ZNKR) was founded in 1952, immediately after Japan's independence was restored and the ban on martial arts in Japan was lifted.[20] It was formed on the principle of kendo not as amartial art, but as educational sport and it has continued to be practiced as such.[21]
TheInternational Kendo Federation (FIK) was founded in April 1970. It is an international federation of national and regional kendo federations, and the world governing body for kendo. The FIK is anon-governmental organization, and it aims to promote and popularize kendo,iaido andjodo.[22]
TheInternational Martial Arts Federation (IMAF), established in Kyoto 1952, was the first international organization founded since [[World War II]] to promote the development of martial arts worldwide. Today, IMAF includes kendo as one of the Japanese disciplines.[23]
Practitioners of kendo are calledkendōka (剣道家), meaning "someone who practices kendo",[24] or occasionallykenshi (剣士), meaning "swordsman".[25] Additionally, the old term ofkendoists is sometimes used.[26]
The Kodansha Meibo, a register ofdan graded members of the AJKF, lists (as of September 2007) 1.48 million registereddan gradedkendōka in Japan. According to a survey conducted by AJKF, the number of active kendo practitioners in Japan is 477,000, including 290,000dan holders. From these figures, AJKF estimates that the number ofkendōka in Japan is 1.66 million, with over 6 million practitioners worldwide, with registereddan holders and active kendo practitioners withoutdan grade.[27]
Kendo is practiced wearing a traditional Japanese style of clothing, protective armor (防具,bōgu) and using one or, less commonly two, shinai (竹刀,shinai).[31]
Theshinai is meant to represent a Japanese sword (katana) and is made up of fourbamboo slats which are held together by leather fittings. A modern variation of ashinai withcarbon fiber reinforced resin slats is also used.[32][33]
Kendōka also use hard wooden swords (木刀,bokutō) to practicekata.[35]
Kendo employs strikes involving both one edge and the tip of theshinai orbokutō.
Protective armor is worn to protect specified target areas on the head, arms, and body. The head is protected by a stylized helmet, calledmen (面), with a metal grille (面金,men-gane) to protect the face, a series of hard leather and fabric flaps (突垂れ,tsuki-dare) to protect the throat, and padded fabric flaps (面垂れ,men-dare) to protect the side of the neck and shoulders. The forearms, wrists, and hands are protected by long, thickly padded fabric gloves calledkote (小手). The torso is protected by abreastplate (胴,dō), while the waist and groin area are protected by thetare (垂れ), consisting of three thick vertical fabric flaps orfaulds.
Kendo training is quite noisy in comparison to some other martial arts or sports. This is becausekendōka use a shout, orkiai (気合い), to express their fighting spirit when striking. Additionally,kendōka executefumikomi-ashi (踏み込み足), an action similar to a stamp of the front foot, during a strike.
Like some other martial arts,kendōka train and fight barefoot. Kendo is ideally practiced in a purpose-builtdōjō, though standard sports halls and other venues are often used. An appropriate venue has a clean and woodensprung floor, suitable forfumikomi-ashi.[28]
Kendo techniques comprise both strikes and thrusts. Strikes are only made towards specified target areas (打突-部位,datotsu-bui) on the wrists, head, or body, all of which are protected by armor. The targets aremen,sayu-men orYoko-men (upper, left or right side of themen), the rightkote at any time, the leftkote when it is in a raised position, and the left or right side of thedō. Thrusts (突き,tsuki) are only allowed to the throat. However, since an incorrectly performed thrust could cause serious injury to the opponent's neck, thrusting techniques in free practice and competition are often restricted to seniordan gradedkendōka.
Kendōka performsonkyo after combat.
Twokendōka intsuba zeriai
Kendo target areas, ordatotsu-bui
Twokendōka, one (left) is playing innitō (two sword style) and the other (right) is playing inittō (one sword style).
Once akendōka begins practice in armor, a practice session may include any or all of the following types of practice:
Techniques are divided intoshikake-waza (仕掛け技; to initiate a strike) andōji-waza (応じ技; a response to an attempted strike).[28]Kendōka who wish to use such techniques during practice or competitions often practice each technique with amotodachi. This is a process that requires patience. Thekendōka andmotodachi practice the technique slowly at first; as familiarity and confidence build, they increase the speed to the level used in matches and competitions.
These attack techniques are used to create an opening in an opponent by initiating an attack, or striking boldly when the opponent has created an opening. Such techniques include:
Tobikomi-waza (飛び込み技)
This is a technique used when one's opponent has weakkisei (spirit, vigor) or when they yield an opening under pressure. Always holdkisei and strike quickly.
Hikibana-waza (引き鼻技)
Body andshinai will lose balance as the initiator strikes or when being attacked. This technique takes advantage of this to help execute a strike. A good example isHikibana-kote when a strike is made to an opponent'skote as they feel threatened and raise theirkensen as the initiator pushes forward.
Katsugi-waza (担ぎ技)
This provides a surprise attack by lifting theshinai over the initiator's shoulder before striking. Here a skillful use of thekensen and spirited attack is crucial for effectivekatsugi-waza or luring the opponent into breaking their posture.
Nidan-waza (二段技)
There are two types. The first is for moving to the nextwaza after a failed first strike, and the second holds the opponent's attention and posture to create the opening for a second strike. The former requires a continuous rhythm of correct strikes. The latter requires continuous execution ofwaza, to take advantage of the opponent's opening.
Harai-waza (払い技)
This can be used if one's opponent's stance has no opening when the opponent tries to attack. The opponent'sshinai is either knocked down from above or swept up from below with a resulting strike just when their stance is broken.
Debana-waza (出鼻技)
This technique involves striking the opponent as they are about to strike. This is because their concentration will be on striking and their posture will have no flexibility to respond. Thusdebana-waza is ideal. This can be to any part of the opponent's body, with valid strikes being:debana-men,debana-kote, anddebana-Tsuki.
These counter-attack techniques are performed by executing a strike after responding or avoiding an attempted strike by the opponent. This can also be achieved by inducing the opponent to attack, then employing one of theŌji-waza.
Nuki-waza (抜き技)
Avoiding an attack from another, then instantly responding. Here, timing has to be correct. A response that is too slow or fast may not be effective. Therefore, close attention to an opponent's every move is required.
Suriage-waza (刷り上げ技)
If struck by an opponent'sshinai, this technique sweeps up theirshinai in a rising-slide motion, with the right (ura) or left (omote) side of theshinai. Then strike in the direction of theirshinai, or at the opening resulting from their composure's collapse. This technique needs to be smooth. That is, do not separate the rising-slide motion and the upward-sweeping motion or it will not be successful. Valid strikes include:men-suriage-men,kote-suriage-men,men-suriage-do,kote-suriage-kote, andTsuki-suriage-men.
Uchiotoshi-waza (撃落し技)
Thiswaza knocks an opponent'sshinai to the right or left. This neutralises a potential strike and gives the ideal chance to strike as an opponent is off-balance. For success, the distance between oneself and the opponent has to be correctly perceived, and then one knocks down theirshinai before their arm fully extends. Valid strikes include:do-uchiotoshi-men andTsuki-uchiotoshi-men.
Kaeshi-waza (返し技)
This technique is a response. As the opponent strikes, the opponent parries theirshinai with the initiator's. They then flip over (turn over the hands) and strike their opposite side. Valid strikes include:men-kaeshi-men,men-kaeshi-kote,men-kaeshi-do,kote-kaeshi-men,kote-kaeshi-kote, anddo-kaeshi-men.
At the European Championships in Bern 2005. Thekendōka to the right may have scored a point to thekote.
A scorable point (有効打突,yūkō-datotsu) in a kendo competition (tai-kai) is defined as an accurate strike or thrust made onto adatotsu-bui of the opponent'skendo-gu with theshinai making contact at itsdatotsu-bu, the competitor displaying high spirits, correct posture and followed byzanshin.[37][clarification needed]
Datotsu-bui or point scoring targets in kendo are defined as:[38]
Men-bu, the top or sides of the head protector (sho-men andsayu-men).
Kote-bu, a padded area of the right or left wrist protector (migi-kote andhidari-kote).
Do-bu, an area of the right or left side of the armour that protects the torso (migi-do andhidari-do).
Tsuki-bu, an area of the head protector in front of the throat (Tsuki-dare).
Datotsu-bu of theshinai is the forward, or blade side (jin-bu) of the top third (monouchi) of theshinai.[38]
Zanshin (残心), or continuation of awareness, must be present and shown throughout the execution of the strike and thekendōka must be mentally and physically ready to attack again.
In competition, there are usually three referees (審判,shinpan). Each referee holds a red flag and a white flag in opposing hands. To award a point, a referee raises the flag corresponding to the color of the ribbon worn by the scoring competitor. Usually, at least two referees must agree for a point to be awarded. Play is stopped after each point is awarded.
Kendo competitions are usually a three-point match. The first competitor to score two points, therefore, wins the match. If the time limit is reached and only one competitor has a point, that competitor wins.
In the case of a tie, there are several options:
Hiki-wake (引き分け): The match is declared a draw.
Enchō (延長): The match is continued until either competitor scores a point.
Hantei (判定): The victor is decided by the referees. The three referees vote for victor by each raising one of their respective flags simultaneously.[39]
The All Japan Kendo Championship is regarded as the most prestigious kendo championship. Despite it being the national championship for only Japanesekendōka, kendo practitioners all over the world consider the All Japan Kendo Championship as the championship with the highest level of competitive kendo. The World Kendo Championships have been held every three years since 1970. They are organised by theInternational Kendo Federation (FIK) with the support of the host nation's kendo federation.[40] The European championship is held every year, except in those years in which there is a world championship.[41] Kendo is also one of the martial arts in theWorld Combat Games.
Technical achievement in kendo is measured by advancement in grade, rank or level. Thekyū (級) anddan (段) grading system, created in 1883,[42] is used to indicate one's proficiency in kendo. Thedan levels are from first-dan (初段,sho-dan) to tenth-dan (十段,jū-dan). There are usually six grades below first-dan, known askyu. Thekyu numbering is in reverse order, with first kyu (一級,ikkyū) being the grade immediately below first dan, and sixth kyu (六級,rokkyū) being the lowest grade. There are no visible differences in dress between kendo grades; those below dan-level may dress the same as those above dan-level.[43]
In Japan, kyu ranks are generally held by children. The exam for 1st kyu (ikkyū) is often their first exam and grade. Adults generally will do their 1st dan (shodan) as their first exam.[citation needed] In most other countries outside of Japan, kendoka go through every kyu rank before being eligible for dan ranks.
Eighth-dan (八段,hachi-dan) is the highestdan grade attainable through a test of physical kendo skills. In the AJKF, the grades of ninth-dan (九段,kyū-dan) andtenthdan (十段 (jū-dan)) are no longer awarded, but ninth-dankendōka are still active in Japanese kendo.International Kendo Federation (FIK) grading rules allow national kendo organisations to establish a special committee to consider awarding these grades. Only five now-deceasedkendōka were ever admitted to the rank of 10th-dan following the establishment in 1952 of theAll Japan Kendo Federation. These fivekendōka, all of whom were students ofNaitō Takaharu at theBudo Senmon Gakko,[44] are:
All examination candidates face a panel of examiners. A larger, more qualified panel is usually assembled to assess the higherdan grades. Kendo examinations typically consist ofjitsugi, a demonstration of the skill of the applicants,Nihon Kendo Kata, and a written exam. The eighth-dan kendo exam is extremely difficult, with a reported pass rate of less than 1 percent.[45]
Requirements fordan grade examination within FIK affiliated organisations
Grade
Requirement
Age requirement
1-dan
1-kyū
At least 13 years old
2-dan
At least 1 year of training after receiving 1-dan
3-dan
At least 2 years of training after receiving 2-dan
4-dan
At least 3 years of training after receiving 3-dan
5-dan
At least 4 years of training after receiving 4-dan
6-dan
At least 5 years of training after receiving 5-dan
7-dan
At least 6 years of training after receiving 6-dan
8-dan
At least 10 years of training after receiving 7-dan
Titles (称号,shōgō) can be earned in addition to the abovedan grades bykendōka of a defineddan grade. These arerenshi (錬士),kyōshi (教士), andhanshi (範士). The title is affixed to the front of thedan grade when said, for examplerenshi roku-dan (錬士六段). The qualifications for each title are below.
Title
Required grade
Conditions
renshi (錬士)
6-dan
After receiving 6-dan, one must wait 1 or more years, pass screening by the kendo organization, receive a recommendation from the regional organization president then pass an exam on kendo theory.
kyōshi (教士)
renshi 7-dan
After receiving 7-dan, one must wait 2 or more years, pass screening by the kendo organization, and receive a recommendation from the regional organization president, then pass an exam on kendo theory.
hanshi (範士)
kyōshi 8-dan
After receiving 8-dan, one must wait 8 or more years, pass screening by the kendo organization, receive a recommendation from the regional organization president and the national kendo organization president, then pass an exam onkendo theory.
Kata are fixed patterns that teachkendōka the basic elements of swordsmanship. Thekata include fundamental techniques of attacking and counter-attacking, and have useful practical application in general kendo. There are tenNihon Kendō Kata (日本剣道形). These are generally practiced with wooden swords (木刀,bokutō orbokken). Occasionally, real swords or swords with a blunt edge, calledkata-yō (形用) orha-biki (刃引), may be used for display ofkata.[46]
All are performed by two people: theuchidachi (打太刀), the teacher, andshidachi (仕太刀), the student. Theuchidachi makes the first move or attack in eachkata. As this is a teaching role, theuchidachi is always the losing side, thus allowing theshidachi to learn and to gain confidence.[46]
Kata one to seven are performed with both partners using a normal length wooden sword.Kata eight to ten are performed withuchidachi using a normal length weapon andshidachi using a shorter one (kodachi).[46]
The forms of theNihon Kendō Kata (日本剣道形) were finalized in 1933 based on theDai nihon Teikoku Kendo Kata, composed in 1912.[47] It is impossible to link the individual forms ofDai nihon Teikoku Kendo Kata to their original influences, although the genealogical reference diagram does indicate the masters of the various committees involved, and it is possible from this to determine the influences and origins of Kendo and the Kata.[48]
In 2003, the All Japan Kendo Federation introducedBokutō Ni Yoru Kendō Kihon-waza Keiko-hō (木刀による剣道基本技稽古法), a set of basic exercises using abokuto. This form of practice is intended primarily forkendōka up to seconddan (二段,ni-dan), but is very useful for all kendo students who are organized underFIK.[46]
Kata can also be treated as competitions where players are judged upon their performance and technique.[49][50]
Many national and regional organizations manage and promote kendo activities outsideJapan. The major organizing body is theInternational Kendo Federation (FIK). The FIK is a non-governmental international federation of national and regional kendo organisations. An aim of the FIK is to provide a link between Japan and the international kendo community and to promote and popularize kendo,iaido andjodo. The FIK was established in 1970 with 17 national federations. The number of affiliated and recognized organizations has increased over the years to 57 (as of May 2015).[51] The FIK is recognized bySportAccord as a 'Full Member',[52] and is also recognized by theWorld Anti-Doping Agency.[53]
Other organizations that promote the study of Japanese martial arts, including kendo, are theDai Nippon Butoku Kai (DNBK) and theInternational Martial Arts Federation (IMAF). The current DNBK has no connection to the pre-war organization, although it shares the same goals. TheInternational Martial Arts Federation (IMAF) was established in Kyoto in 1952 and is dedicated to the promotion and development of the martial arts worldwide, including kendo.[23]
^abYoshio, Mifuji, ed. (31 October 2009).Budo: The Martial Ways of Japan. Translated by Dr Alexander Bennett. Tokyo:Nippon Budokan Foundation. p. 335..
^abTamio, Nakamura (3 January 2007)."The History of Bogu".Jikishin Kage-ryu Kenjutsu. Published with the permission of Kendo World.Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved23 August 2020.
^Chiba, Eiichiro (1942).Chiba Shusaku Ikoshu. Tokyo, Japan. p. xiv.ISBN978-4-88458-220-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (in Japanese)
^Hall, David (25 March 2013).Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts. Kodansha USA. p. xiv.ISBN978-1568364100.(in English)
^Skoss, Diane (April 2002).Keiko Shokon (Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan).Koryu Books. p. xiv.ISBN978-1890536060. (in English)
.jpg)
