Kazakhstan has been inhabited since thePaleolithic era. In antiquity, various nomadicIranian peoples such as theSaka,Massagetae, andScythians dominated the territory, with theAchaemenid Persian Empire expanding towards the south.Turkic nomads entered the region from the sixth century. In the 13th century, the area was subjugated by theMongol Empire underGenghis Khan. Following the disintegration of theGolden Horde in the 15th century, theKazakh Khanate was established over an area roughly corresponding with modern Kazakhstan. By the 18th century, the Kazakh Khanate had fragmented into threejüz (tribal divisions), which were gradually absorbed and conquered by theRussian Empire; by the mid-19th century, all of Kazakhstan was nominally under Russian rule.[16] Following the 1917Russian Revolution and subsequentRussian Civil War, it becamean autonomous republic of theRussian SFSR within theSoviet Union. Its status was elevated to that ofa union republic in 1936. The Soviet government settled Russians and other ethnicities in the republic, which resulted in ethnic Kazakhs being a minority during the Soviet era. Kazakhstan was the lastconstituent republic of the Soviet Union to declare independence in 1991 duringits dissolution.
The English wordKazakh, meaning a member of the Kazakh people, derives fromRussian:казах.[22] The native name isқазақ,qazaq. It might originate from the Turkic word verbqaz-, 'to wander', reflecting the Kazakhs'nomadic culture.[23] The termCossack is of the same origin.[23]
ThoughKazakh traditionally referred only toethnic Kazakhs, including those living in China, Russia, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, the term is increasingly being used to refer to any inhabitant of Kazakhstan, including residents of other ethnicities.[26] In the Kazakh language, the country is calledQazaqstan in theLatin script.[27]
The Kazakh territory was a key constituent of the Eurasian tradingSteppe Route, the ancestor of the terrestrialSilk Roads. Archaeologists believe that humans firstdomesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo-EuropeanAfanasievo culture,[32] later earlyIndo-Iranian cultures such asAndronovo,[33] and later Indo-Iranians such as theSaka andMassagetae.[34][35] Other groups included the nomadicScythians and the PersianAchaemenid Empire in the southern territory of the modern country. The Andronovo andSrubnaya cultures, precursors to the peoples of theScythian cultures, were found to harbor mixed ancestry from theYamnayaSteppe herders and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic.[36]
The mainmigration ofTurkic peoples occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previousIranian-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largelyIranian, into primarily of East Asian descent.[37]
TheFirst Turkic Khaganate was founded byBumin in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. TheGöktürks drove before them various peoples:Xionites,Uar,Oghurs and others. These seem to have merged into theAvars andBulgars. Within 35 years, theeastern half and theWestern Turkic Khaganate were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century.
TheCumans entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with theKipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. While ancient citiesTaraz (Aulie-Ata) andHazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along theSilk Road connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under theMongol Empire, the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established. After thedivision of the Mongol Empire in 1259, the land that would become modern-day Kazakhstan was ruled by theGolden Horde, also known as the Ulus of Jochi. During the Golden Horde period, aTurco-Mongol tradition emerged among the ruling elite whereinTurkicised descendants ofGenghis Khan followedIslam and continued to reign over the lands.
In 1465, theKazakh Khanate emerged as a result of the dissolution of theGolden Horde. Established byJanibek Khan andKerei Khan, it continued to be ruled by theTurco-Mongol clan of Tore (Jochid dynasty). Throughout this period, traditionalnomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate thesteppe. In the 15th century, a distinctKazakh identity began to emerge among theTurkic tribes. This was followed by theKazakh War of Independence, where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from theShaybanids. The process was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakhlanguage, culture, and economy.
Approximate areas occupied by the three Kazakh jüz in the early 20th century
Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakhemirs and the neighbouringPersian-speaking peoples to the south. At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and controlCumania. The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes (jüz). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate. TheKhiva Khanate used this opportunity and annexed theMangyshlak Peninsula. Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival.
During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought theOirats, a federation of westernMongol tribes, including theDzungar.[38] The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730war against the Dzungar Khanate, following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territory. Under the leadership ofAbul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at theBattle of Añyraqai in 1729.[39]
Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the VolgaKalmyks. TheKokand Khanate used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, includingAlmaty, the formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century. TheEmirate of Bukhara ruledŞymkent before the Russians gained dominance.[40]
Russian Kazakhstan
Ural Cossacks skirmish with KazakhsKazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th century
In the first half of the 18th century, theRussian Empire constructed theIrtysh line [ru], a series of forty-six forts and ninety-six redoubts, includingOmsk (1716),Semipalatinsk (1718),Pavlodar (1720),Orenburg (1743) andPetropavlovsk (1752),[41] to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory.[42] In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage ofPugachev's Rebellion, which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian andVolga German settlements.[43] In the 19th century, theRussian Empire began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to theAnglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Thetsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.
The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" for dominance in the area against theBritish Empire, which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost,Orsk, in 1735. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations.
Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture.
From the 1890s onward, ever-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire begancolonizing the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province ofSemirechye. The number of settlers rose still further once theTrans-Aral Railway fromOrenburg toTashkent was completed in 1906. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) inSt. Petersburg oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.[44]Vasile Balabanov was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.
The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of theRussian Empire. The most serious uprising, theCentral Asian revolt, occurred in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian andCossack settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.[45] Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919.
The International Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978, known as theAlma-Ata Declaration
TheSoviet-German War (1941–1945) led to an increase in industrialisation andmineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time ofJoseph Stalin's death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leaderNikita Khrushchev initiated theVirgin Lands Campaign designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leaderLeonid Brezhnev (in power 1964–1982), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 theKazakhs had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. EthnicRussians accounted for 43 percent.[49]
In April 1961,Baikonur became the springboard ofVostok 1, a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonautYuri Gagarin being the first human to enter space.
In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called theJeltoqsan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of theFirst Secretary of theCommunist Party of the Kazakh SSRDinmukhamed Konayev withGennady Kolbin from theRussian SFSR. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.[51] In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev's policy ofglasnost ("openness").
Independence
Kazakhstan declared itssovereignty within the Soviet Union on 25 October 1990. Following the failed August 1991coup attempt in Moscow, the country proclaimed full independence on 16 December 1991, becoming the last Soviet republic to do so. Ten days after Kazakhstan's declaration, the Soviet Union itself dissolved. This period marked a significant turning point in Kazakhstan's history, as it embarked on a new political and economic path separate from Moscow's control.
Nursultan Nazarbayev, the communist-era leader of Kazakhstan, became the country's first president. Under his leadership, Kazakhstan transitioned from a Soviet-era planned economy to a market economy, focusing on privatization and foreign investments. The emphasis on economic reform, particularly in the oil sector, helped Kazakhstan become one of Central Asia's most economically powerful nations. By 2006, Kazakhstan contributed around 60% of the region's GDP, primarily through its oil exports. However, political reforms lagged behind these economic strides, and Nazarbayev maintained an authoritarian rule throughout his presidency.[17]
In 1997, Nazarbayevmoved the capital from Almaty, the country's largest city, toAstana (later renamed Nur-Sultan in 2019),[52] a decision that symbolized the government's desire to modernize and assert control over the country's vast territories. The capital city change was part of broader efforts to establish a new national identity and shift the political center from the old Soviet-era heartlands.[53]
Kazakhstan's political landscape during Nazarbayev's rule was characterized by limited political pluralism. In the 2004 parliamentary elections, the pro-government Otan Party, led by Nazarbayev, dominated the Majilis (the lower house of parliament). Other parties sympathetic to the president, such as the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party (founded by Nazarbayev's daughter), secured most of the remaining seats, while opposition parties struggled to gain representation. International observers, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, criticized the elections for not meeting democratic standards.[54]
Despite claims of progress toward democracy, Kazakhstan's political system remained authoritarian well into the 21st century.[55] In 2010, the country was still ranked as anauthoritarian regime onThe Economist'sDemocracy Index.[20][21] Nazarbayev, who had ruled since independence, announced his resignation on 19 March 2019, after nearly three decades in power.[56] His successor,Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, won the 2019 presidential election and took office on 12 June 2019.[57][58] Tokayev's first official act was to rename the capital city to Nur-Sultan, in honor of Nazarbayev’s legacy.[59]
However, Tokayev's presidency faced significant challenges. In January 2022, Kazakhstan was gripped by large-scale protests following a sharp rise in fuel prices.[60] The unrest quickly escalated, and Tokayev responded decisively by assuming control of the country's Security Council, removing Nazarbayev from the post and consolidating his own power. This marked a dramatic shift in Kazakhstan's political dynamics, with Tokayev signaling a departure from the old Nazarbayev-era system.[61] In September 2022, the capital's name was reverted back to Astana, a move seen as part of the broader efforts to distance the country from the former president’s influence.[62]
With an area of 2,700,000 square kilometres (1,000,000 sq mi)—equivalent in size to Western Europe—Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country and largest landlocked country in the world. While it was part of theRussian Empire, Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China'sXinjiang province,[63] and some to Uzbekistan'sKarakalpakstan autonomous republic during Soviet years.
It shares borders of 6,846 kilometres (4,254 mi) with Russia, 2,203 kilometres (1,369 mi) withUzbekistan, 1,533 kilometres (953 mi) with China, 1,051 kilometres (653 mi) withKyrgyzstan, and 379 kilometres (235 mi) withTurkmenistan. Major cities includeAlmaty,Astana,Shymkent,Aktöbe andKaragandy. It lies between latitudes40° and56° N, and longitudes46° and88° E. While located primarily in Asia, asmall portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of theUrals in Eastern Europe.[64]
Kazakhstan's terrain extends west to east from theCaspian Sea to theAltay Mountains and north to south from the plains ofWestern Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. TheKazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around 804,500 square kilometres (310,600 sq mi), occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest drysteppe region. The steppe is characterised by large areas ofgrasslands and sandy regions. Major seas, lakes and rivers includeLake Balkhash,Lake Zaysan, theCharyn River and gorge, theIli,Irtysh,Ishim,Ural andSyr Darya rivers, and theAral Sea until it largely dried up in one of the world's worst environmental disasters.[65]
Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extractions has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57 percent of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13 percent of gross domestic product). According to some estimates,[67] Kazakhstan has the second largesturanium,chromium, lead, andzinc reserves; the third largestmanganese reserves; the fifth largest copper reserves; and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. In 2015, Kazakhstan's gold production is 64 metric tonnes.[68] It is also an exporter of diamonds. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.[69] One such location is theTokarevskoye gas condensate field.
In total, there are 160 deposits with over 2.7 billion tonnes (2.7 billion long tons) of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on theCaspian shore are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that 3.5 billion tonnes (3.4 billion long tons) of oil and 2.5 billion cubic metres (88 billion cubic feet) of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is 6.1 billion tonnes (6.0 billion long tons). However, there are only threerefineries within the country, situated inAtyrau,[70]Pavlodar, andŞymkent. These are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported to Russia. According to the USEnergy Information Administration, Kazakhstan was producing approximately 1,540,000 barrels (245,000 m3) of oil per day in 2009.[71]
Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits ofphosphorite. Two of the largest deposits include the Karatau basin with 650 million tonnes of P2O5 and the Chilisai deposit of theAqtobe phosphorite basin located in northwestern Kazakhstan, with resources of 500–800million tonnes of 9 percent ore.[72][73]
On 17 October 2013, theExtractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as "EITI Compliant", meaning that the country has a basic and functional process to ensure the regular disclosure of natural resource revenues.[74]
Climate
Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1-km resolution for Kazakhstan 1991–2020
Kazakhstan has an "extreme"continental andcold steppe climate, and sits solidly inside theEurasian steppe, featuring theKazakh steppe, with hot summers and cold winters. Indeed, Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world, afterUlaanbaatar.Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry.[75]
Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for large cities in Kazakhstan[76]
Common mammals include thewolf,red fox,corsac fox,moose,argali (the largest species of sheep),Eurasian lynx,Pallas's cat, andsnow leopards, several of which are protected.Kazakhstan's Red Book of Protected Species lists 125 vertebrates including many birds and mammals, and 404 plants including fungi, algae and lichens.[80]
Officially, Kazakhstan is a democratic, secular, constitutionalunitary republic;Nursultan Nazarbayev led the country from 1991 to 2019.[82][83] He was succeeded byKassym-Jomart Tokayev.[84][85] The president may veto legislation that has been passed by theparliament and is also thecommander-in-chief of thearmed forces. The prime minister chairs the cabinet of ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and sixteen ministers in the cabinet.[86]
Kazakhstan has abicameral parliament composed of theMajilis (thelower house) andsenate (theupper house).[87] Single-mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in theMajilis; there also are ten members elected by party-list vote. The senate has 48 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (mäslihats) of Kazakhstan's twenty principaladministrative divisions (seventeen regions and three nationally significant cities).[88] The president appoints the remaining fifteen senators.Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the parliament.In 2020,Freedom House rated Kazakhstan as a "consolidatedauthoritarian regime", stating thatfreedom of speech is not respected and "Kazakhstan's electoral laws do not provide forfree and fair elections."[89]
Political reforms
Reforms have begun to be implemented after the election of Kassym-Jomart Tokayev in June 2019. Tokayev supports a culture of opposition, public assembly, and loosening rules on forming political parties.[90] In June 2019, Tokayev established the National Council of Public Trust as a public platform for national conversation regarding government policies and reforms.[91] In July 2019, the President of Kazakhstan announced a concept of a 'listening state' that quickly and efficiently responds to all constructive requests of the country's citizens.[92] A law will be passed to allow representatives from other parties to hold chair positions on some Parliamentary committees, to foster alternative views and opinions.[when?] The minimum membership threshold needed to register a political party will be reduced from 40,000 to 20,000 members.[91] Special places for peaceful rallies in central areas will be allocated and a new draft law outlining the rights and obligations of organisers, participants and observers will be passed.[91] In an effort to increase public safety, President Tokayev has strengthened the penalties for those who commit crimes against individuals.[91]
On 17 September 2022, Tokayev signed a decree that limits presidential tenure to one term of seven years.[93] He furthermore announced the preparation of a new reform package to "decentralize" and "distribute" power between government institutions. The reform package also seeks to modify the electoral system and increase the decision-making authorities of Kazakhstan's regions.[94] The powers of the parliament were expanded at the expense of those of the president, relatives of whom are now also barred from holding government positions, while the Constitutional Court was restored and the death penalty abolished.[94][95]
Kazakhstan is divided into seventeenregions (Kazakh:облыстар,oblystar; Russian:области,oblasti) and four cities independent of their geographic region.[88] The regions are subdivided into 177districts (Kazakh:аудандар,audandar; Russian:районы,rayony).[96] The districts are further subdivided into rural districts at the lowest level of administration, which include all rural settlements and villages without an associated municipal government.[97]
The cities ofAlmaty,Astana andShymkent have status "state importance" and do not belong to any region. The city ofBaikonur has a special status because it is being leased until 2050 to Russia for theBaikonur cosmodrome.[98] In June 2018 the city ofŞymkent became a "city of republican significance".[99]
Each region is headed by anäkim (regional governor) appointed by the president. Districtäkimi are appointed by regionalakims. Kazakhstan's government relocated its capital from Almaty, established under the Soviet Union, to Astana on 10 December 1997.[100]
Municipal divisions
Municipalities exist at each level of administrative division in Kazakhstan. Cities of republican, regional, and district significance are designated as urban inhabited localities; all others are designated rural.[97] At the highest level are the cities of Almaty and Astana, which are classified ascities of republican significance on the administrative level equal to that of a region.[96] At the intermediate level arecities of regional significance on the administrative level equal to that of a district. Cities of these two levels may be divided into city districts.[96] At the lowest level arecities of district significance, and over two-thousandvillages and rural settlements (aul) on the administrative level equal to that of rural districts.[96]
In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at theCouncil of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe,[104][105] it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved.
Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the "multi-vector foreign policy" (Kazakh:көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.[106][107] Russia leases approximately 6,000 square kilometres (2,317 sq mi) of territory enclosing theBaikonur Cosmodrome space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttleBuran and the well-known space stationMir.
On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev andObama met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan. They pledged to intensify bilateral co-operation to promote nuclear safety and non-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.[108]
Since 2014, the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018.[109] On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two-year term.[110]
Kazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.[111] In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions. The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles.[111]
In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian-backed rebels. In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine. In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid toUkraine's southeastern regions.[112] President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, "The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine."[113] Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.[114] It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine.[114]
Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: "We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south-eastern Ukraine."[115] In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[116]
On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced. The document outlines the following main points:
An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development;
Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection;
Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment;
Maintaining international peace and security;
Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.[117]
Based on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions[121][122] through which the country attempts to balance its relations with "all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there."[123]
Kazakhstan is the 59th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[124]
Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from theSoviet Armed Forces'Turkestan Military District. These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military. It acquired all the units of the40th Army (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including six land-force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, two rocket brigades, two artillery regiments, and a large amount of equipment that had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of theTreaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. Since the late 20th century, the Kazakhstan Army has focused on expanding the number of its armoured units. Since 1990, armoured units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005.
The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet-era planes, including 41MiG-29s, 44MiG-31s, 37Su-24s and 60Su-27s. A small naval force is maintained on the Caspian Sea.[125]
Kazakhstan sent 29 military engineers toIraq to assist theUS post-invasion mission in Iraq.[126] During the second Iraq War, Kazakhstani troops dismantled 4 million mines and other explosives, helped provide medical care to more than 5,000 coalition members and civilians, and purified 718 cubic metres (25,400 cu ft) of water.[127]
Kazakhstan'sNational Security Committee (UQK) was established on 13 June 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered the most important part of KNB. Its director isNurtai Abykayev.
Since 2002, the joint tactical peacekeeping exercise "Steppe Eagle" has been hosted by the Kazakhstan government. "Steppe Eagle" focuses on building coalitions and gives participating nations the opportunity to work together. During the Steppe Eagle exercises, theKAZBAT peacekeeping battalion operates within a multinational force under a unified command within peacekeeping operations, with NATO and the U.S. Military.[128]
In December 2013, Kazakhstan announced it will send officers to support United Nations Peacekeeping forces in Haiti, Western Sahara, Ivory Coast and Liberia.[129]
Kazakhstan's human rights situation has been described as poor by independent observers. In its 2015 report of human rights in the country,Human Rights Watch said that "Kazakhstan heavily restricts freedom of assembly, speech, and religion."[133] It has also described the government as authoritarian.[134] In 2014, authorities closed newspapers, jailed or fined dozens of people after peaceful but unsanctioned protests, and fined or detained worshipers for practising religion outside state controls. Government critics, including opposition leaderVladimir Kozlov, remained in detention after unfair trials. In mid-2014, Kazakhstan adopted new criminal, criminal executive, criminal procedural, and administrative codes, and a new law on trade unions, which contain articles restricting fundamental freedoms and are incompatible with international standards. Torture remains common in places of detention."[135] However, Kazakhstan has achieved significant progress in reducing the prison population.[136] The 2016 Human Rights Watch report commented that Kazakhstan "took few meaningful steps to tackle a worsening human rights record in 2015, maintaining a focus on economic development over political reform."[137] Some critics of the government have beenarrested for allegedly spreadingfalse information about theCOVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan.[138] Various police reforms, like creation of local police service and zero-tolerance policing, aimed at bringing police closer to local communities have not improved cooperation between policemen and ordinary citizens.[139]
According to a U.S. government report released in 2014, in Kazakhstan:
The law does not require police to inform detainees that they have theright to an attorney, and police did not do so. Human rights observers alleged that law enforcement officials dissuaded detainees from seeing an attorney, gathered evidence through preliminary questioning before a detainee's attorney arrived, and in some cases used corrupt defense attorneys to gather evidence. [...][140]
The law does not adequately provide for anindependent judiciary. The executive branch sharply limited judicial independence. Prosecutors enjoyed a quasi-judicial role and had the authority to suspend court decisions. Corruption was evident at every stage of the judicial process. Although judges were among the most highly paid government employees, lawyers and human rights monitors alleged that judges, prosecutors, and other officials solicitedbribes in exchange for favorable rulings in the majority of criminal cases.[140]
Kazakhstan's global rank in theWorld Justice Project's 2015 Rule of Law Index was 65 out of 102; the country scored well on "Order and Security" (global rank 32/102), and poorly on "Constraints on Government Powers" (global rank 93/102), "Open Government" (85/102) and "Fundamental Rights" (84/102, with a downward trend marking a deterioration in conditions).[141]
Kazakhstan's Supreme Court has taken steps to modernise and to increase transparency and oversight over the country's legal system. With funding from the US Agency for International Development, the ABA Rule of Law Initiative began a new program in April 2012 to strengthen the independence and accountability of Kazakhstan's judiciary.[144]
In an effort to increase transparency in the criminal justice and court system, and improve human rights, Kazakhstan intended to digitise all investigative, prosecutorial and court records by 2018.[145] Many criminal cases are closed before trial on the basis of reconciliation between the defendant and the victim because they simplify the work of the law-enforcement officers, release the defendant from punishment, and pay little regard to the victim's rights.[146]
Homosexuality has been legal in Kazakhstan since 1997, although it is still socially unacceptable in most areas.[147] Discrimination againstLGBT people in Kazakhstan is widespread.[148][149]
GDP per capita development in Kazakhstan since 1973
In 2018, Kazakhstan had a GDP of $179.332 billion and an annual growth rate of 4.5 percent. Per capita, Kazakhstan's GDP stood at $9,686.[150] Buoyed by high worldcrude oil prices, GDP growth figures were between 8.9 percent and 13.5 percent from 2000 to 2007 before decreasing to 1 to 3 percent in2008 and 2009, and then rising again from 2010.[151] Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock. Kazakhstan is a leading exporter ofuranium.[152][153]
Kazakhstan's economy grew by 4.6 percent in 2014.[154] The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014 sparked by fallingoil prices and the effects of theUkrainian crisis.[155] The country devalued its currency by 19 percent in February 2014.[156] Another 22 percent devaluation occurred in August 2015.[157] Kazakhstan was the first former Soviet Republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund, 7 years ahead of schedule.[158]
Kazakhstan weathered the global financial crisis[citation needed] by combining fiscal relaxation with monetary stabilisation. In 2009, the government introduced large-scale support measures such as the recapitalisation of banks and support for the real estate and agricultural sectors, as well as forsmall and medium enterprises (SMEs). The total value of the stimulus programs amounted to $21 billion, or 20 per cent of the country's GDP, with $4 billion going to stabilise the financial sector.[159] During the global economic crisis, Kazakhstan's economy contracted by 1.2 percent in 2009, while the annual growth rate subsequently increased to 7.5 percent and 5 percent in 2011 and 2012, respectively.[160] Kazakhstan's government continued to follow a conservative fiscal policy by controlling budget spending and accumulating oil revenue savings in its Oil Fund – Samruk-Kazyna. The global financial crisis forced Kazakhstan to increase its public borrowing to support the economy. Public debt increased to 13.4 per cent in 2013 from 8.7 per cent in 2008. Between 2012 and 2013, the government achieved an overall fiscal surplus of 4.5 per cent.[161]
In March 2002, theU.S. Department of Commerce granted Kazakhstanmarket economy status underUS trade law. This change in status recognised substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currencyconvertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in theCIS to receive an investment gradecredit rating from a major internationalcredit rating agency.[162] By late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion, 14 percent of GDP. There has been a reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP. The ratio of total governmental debt to GDP was 21.7 percent in 2000, 17.5 percent in 2001, and 15.4 percent in 2002. In 2019, it rose to 19.2 percent.[163]
On 29 November 2003, the Law on Changes to Tax Code which reducedtax rates was adopted. Thevalue added tax fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax, payable by all employers, from 21 percent to 20 percent, and the personalincome tax from 30 percent to 20 percent. On 7 July 2006, the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5 percent for personal income in the form of dividends and 10 percent for other personal income. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on 20 June 2003, and a new customs code on 5 April 2003.
Kazakhstan instituted a pension reform program in 1998. By January 2012, the pension assets were about $17 billion (KZT 2.5 trillion). There are 11 saving pension funds in the country. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, wasprivatised in 2006. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates pension funds. The growing demand of pension funds for investment outlets triggered the development of the debtsecurities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and governmentbonds, including the government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The government of Kazakhstan was studying a project to create a unified national pension fund and transfer all the accounts from the private pension funds into it.[164]
Kazakhstan'sforeign trade turnover in 2018 was $93.5 billion, which is 19.7 percent more than in 2017. Export in 2018 reached $67 billion (up 25.7 percent in comparison to 2017) and import was $32.5 billion (up 9.9 percent in comparison to 2017).[168] Exports accounted for 40.1 percent of Kazakhstan's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018. Kazakhstan exports 800 products to 120 countries.[169]
Agriculture accounts for approximately 5 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP.[98] Grain, potatoes, grapes, vegetables, melons and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than 846,000 square kilometres (327,000 sq mi). The available agricultural land consists of 205,000 km2 (79,000 sq mi) of arable land and 611,000 km2 (236,000 sq mi) ofpasture and hay land. Over 80 percent of the country's total area is classified as agricultural land, including almost 70 percent occupied by pasture. Its arable land has the second highest availability per inhabitant (1.5 hectares).[170]
Chief livestock products aredairy products, leather, meat, andwool. The country's major crops include wheat,barley, cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source ofhard currency, rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2.8% higher compared to 2002. Kazakhstani agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union. SomeKazakh wine is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty.[171]
Energy
Kazakhstan has one of the largest provenoil reserves in the Caspian Sea region.
Energy has been the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil andnatural gas condensate from theoil and gas basins of Kazakhstan amounted to 79.2 million tonnes (77.9 millionlong tons; 87.3 millionshort tons) in 2012 up from 51.2 million tonnes (50.4 million long tons; 56.4 million short tons) in 2003. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13 percent higher than in 2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003, amounted to 13.9 billion cubic metres (490 billioncubic feet), up 22.7 percent compared to 2002, including natural gas production of 7.3 billion cubic metres (260 billion cubic feet). Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tonnes (3.9 billion long tons; 4.4 billion short tons) of proven recoverable oil reserves and 2,000 cubic kilometres (480 cubic miles) of gas. Kazakhstan is the 19th largest oil-producing nation in the world.[172] Kazakhstan's oil exports in 2003, were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65 percent of overall exports and 24 percent of the GDP. Major oil and gas fields and recoverableoil reserves areTengiz with 7 billion barrels (1.1 billion cubic metres);Karachaganak with 8 billion barrels (1.3 billion cubic metres) and 1,350 cubic kilometres (320 cubic miles) of natural gas; andKashagan with 7 to 9 billion barrels (1.4 billion cubic metres).
KazMunayGas (KMG), the national oil and gas company, was created in 2002 to represent the interests of the state in the oil and gas industry. TheTengiz Field was jointly developed in 1993 as a 40-yearTengizchevroil venture betweenChevron Texaco (50 percent), USExxonMobil (25 percent),KazMunayGas (20 percent), andLukArco (5 percent).[173] TheKarachaganak natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed byBG,Agip, ChevronTexaco, andLukoil.[174] AlsoChinese oil companies are involved in Kazakhstan's oil industry.[175]
Kazakhstan launched the Green Economy Plan in 2013. It committed Kazakhstan to meet 50 percent of its energy needs from alternative and renewable sources by 2050.[176] The green economy was projected to increase GDP by 3 percent and create some 500,000 jobs.[177] The government set prices for energy produced from renewable sources. The price of 1 kilowatt-hour for energy produced by wind power plants was set at 22.68 tenge ($0.12), for 1 kilowatt-hour produced by small hydro-power plants 16.71 tenges ($0.09), and from biogas plants 32.23 tenges ($0.18).[178]
Map of Kazakhstan railway networkTrain 22 Kyzylorda – Semipalatinsk, hauled by a Kazakhstan Temir Zholy 2TE10U diesel locomotive. Picture taken near Aynabulak, Kazakhstan.
Railways provide 68 percent of all cargo and passenger traffic to over 57 percent of the country. There are 15,333 km (9,527 mi) in common carrier service, excluding industrial lines.[179]15,333 km (9,527 mi) of1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) gauge, 4,000 km (2,500 mi) electrified, in 2012.[179] Most cities are connected by railroad; high-speed trains go fromAlmaty (the southernmost city) toPetropavl (the northernmost city) in about 18 hours.
Kazakhstan Temir Zholy (KTZ) is the national railway company. KTZ cooperates with French locomotive manufacturerAlstom in developing Kazakhstan's railway infrastructure. As of 2018, Alstom has more than 600 staff and two joint ventures with KTZ and its subsidiary in Kazakhstan.[180] In July 2017, Alstom opened its first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan. It is the only repairing centre in Central Asia and the Caucasus.[181]Astana Nurly Zhol railway station, the most modern railway station in Kazakhstan, was opened in Astana on 31 May 2017. According to Kazakhstan Railways (KTZ), the 120,000m2 station was expected to be used by 54 trains and would have the capacity to handle 35,000 passengers a day.[182]
There is a small 8.56 km (5.32 mi)metro system inAlmaty. Second and third metro lines were planned for the future. The second line would intersect with the first line atAlatau andZhibek Zholy stations.[183] TheAstana Metro system has been under construction, but was abandoned at one point in 2013.[184] In May 2015, an agreement was signed for the project to be resumed.[185] There is an 86 km (53 mi) tram network, which began service in 1965 with, as of 2012, 20 regular and three special routes.[186]
TheKhorgos Gateway dry port is one of Kazakhstan's primarydry ports for handling trans-Eurasian trains, which travel more than 9,000 km (5,600 mi) between China and Europe. The Khorgos Gateway dry port is surrounded by Khorgos Eastern Gate SEZ which officially commenced operations in December 2016.[187]
In 2009, theEuropean Commissionblacklisted all Kazakh air carriers with a sole exception ofAir Astana.[188] Thereafter, Kazakhstan took measures to modernise and revamp its air safety oversight. In 2016 the European air safety authorities removed all Kazakh airlines from the blacklist, saying there was "sufficient evidence of compliance" with international standards by Kazakh Airlines and the Civil Aviation Committee.[189]
Kazakhstan is theninth-largest country by area and the largest landlocked country in the world. As of 2014, tourism accounted for 0.3 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP, but the government had plans to increase it to 3 percent by 2020.[190][191] According to theWorld Economic Forum'sTravel and Tourism Competitiveness Report of 2017, travel and tourism industry GDP in Kazakhstan was $3.08 billion or only 1.6 percent of total GDP. The WEF ranked Kazakhstan 80th in its 2019 report.[192]
In 2017, Kazakhstan ranked 43rd in the number of tourist arrivals. In 2014,The Guardian described tourism in Kazakhstan as "hugely underdeveloped," despite the country's mountain, lake, and desert landscapes.[193] Factors hampering an increase in tourism were said to include high prices, "shabby infrastructure," "poor service," and the difficulties of travel in a large underdeveloped country.[193] Even for Kazakhs, going for a holiday abroad may cost only half the price of taking a holiday in Kazakhstan.[193]
TheKazakh government, long characterised as authoritarian with a history of human rights abuses and suppression of political opposition,[17] in 2015 issued a "Tourism Industry Development Plan 2020." It aimed to establish five tourism clusters in Kazakhstan:Astana city,Almaty city,East Kazakhstan,South Kazakhstan, andWest Kazakhstan Oblasts. It also sought investment of $4 billion and the creation of 300,000 new jobs in the tourism industry by 2020.[194][193]
Kazakhstan has attracted $330 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) from more than 120 countries since its independence (1991).[197] In 2015, the U.S. State Department said Kazakhstan was widely considered to have the best investment climate in the region.[198] In 2014, President Nazarbayev signed into law tax concessions to promote foreign direct investment which included a 10-year exemption from corporation tax, an eight-year exemption from property tax, and a 10-year freeze on most other taxes.[199] Other incentives include a refund on capital investments of up to 30 percent once a production facility is in operation.[199]In 2012, Kazakhstan attracted $14 billion offoreign direct investment inflows into the country at a 7 percent growth rate.[200] In 2018, $24 billion of FDI was directed into Kazakhstan, a significant increase since 2012.[201]
In 2014, theEuropean Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and Kazakhstan created the partnership for Re-Energizing the Reform Process in Kazakhstan to work with international financial institutions to channel US$2.7 billion provided by the Kazakh government into important sectors of Kazakhstan's economy.[202]As of May 2014, Kazakhstan had attracted $190 billion in gross foreign investments since its independence in 1991 and it led the CIS countries in terms of FDI attracted per capita.[203] The OECD 2017 Investment Policy Review noted that "great strides" had been made to open up opportunities to foreign investors and improve policy to attract FDI.[204]China is one of the main economic and trade partners of Kazakhstan. In 2013, China launched theBelt and Road Initiative (BRI) in which Kazakhstan functions as a transit hub.[205]
Banking
The banking industry of Kazakhstan went through a boom-and-bust cycle in the early 21st century. After several years of rapid expansion in the mid-2000s, the banking industry collapsed in 2008. Several large banking groups, includingBTA Bank J.S.C. and Alliance Bank, defaulted soon thereafter. The industry shrank and was restructured, with system-wide loans dropping from 59 percent of GDP in 2007 to 39 percent in 2011. TheKazakh National Bank introduced deposit insurance in a campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks had branches in Kazakhstan, includingRBS,Citibank, andHSBC.Kookmin andUniCredit both entered Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions andstake-building.[citation needed]
Economic competitiveness
According to the 2010–11 World Economic Forum in Global Competitiveness Report, Kazakhstan was ranked 72nd in the world in economic competitiveness.[206] One year later, theGlobal Competitiveness Report ranked Kazakhstan 50th in most competitive markets.[207]
In the 2020 Doing Business Report by the World Bank, Kazakhstan ranked 25th globally and as the number one best country globally for protecting minority investors' rights.[208] Kazakhstan achieved its goal of entering the top 50 most competitive countries in 2013 and has maintained its position in the 2014–2015 World Economic ForumGlobal Competitiveness Report that was published at the beginning of September 2014.[209] Kazakhstan is ahead of other states in the CIS in almost all of the report's pillars of competitiveness, including institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market development, financial market development, technological readiness, market size, business sophistication and innovation, lagging behind only in the category of health and primary education.[209] The Global Competitiveness Index gives a score from 1 to 7 in each of these pillars, and Kazakhstan earned an overall score of 4.4.[209]
Corruption
In 2005, theWorld Bank listed Kazakhstan as a corruption hotspot, on a par withAngola,Bolivia,Kenya,Libya andPakistan.[210] In 2012, Kazakhstan ranked low in an index of the least corrupt countries[211] and theWorld Economic Forum listed corruption as the biggest problem in doing business in the country.[211] A 2017 OECD report on Kazakhstan indicated that Kazakhstan has reformed laws with regard to the civil service, judiciary, instruments to prevent corruption,access to information, and prosecuting corruption.[212] Kazakhstan has implemented anticorruption reforms that have been recognised by organizations likeTransparency International.[213]
In 2011,Switzerland confiscated US$48 million in Kazakhstani assets from Swiss bank accounts, as a result of a bribery investigation in the United States.[214] US officials believed the funds represented bribes paid by American officials to Kazakhstani officials in exchange for oil or prospecting rights in Kazakhstan. Proceedings eventually involved US$84 million in the US and another US$60 million in Switzerland.[214]
Transparency International's 2024Corruption Perceptions Index, which scored 180 countries on a scale from 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean"), gave Kazakhstan a score of 40. When ranked by score, Kazakhstan ranked 80th among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector.[216] For comparison with regional scores, the highest score among Eastern European and Central Asian countries[g] was 53, the average score was 35 and the lowest score was 17.[217] For comparison with worldwide scores, the best score was 90 (ranked 1), the average score was 43, and the worst score was 8 (ranked 180).[218]
Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015), Figure 14.3.
Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel. Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution. Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science. Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs. In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.[219][220]
Group of Kazakhstan physicists in collaboration with Uzbek researchers working at the ion accelerator DC-60
One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015. By 2013, this ratio stood at 0.18 percent of GDP. It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.[needs update] Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013.[220]
Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (circa US$1.6 billion), or around 1.1 percent of GDP. Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development. This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries. This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure. Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries.[219][220] Kazakhstan was ranked 78th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[221]
In December 2012, President Nursultan Nazarbayev announced the Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy with the slogan "Strong Business, Strong State." This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050. In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created during each five-year plan. The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the second five-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products. To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment. The second five-year plan coincides with the development of theBusiness 2020 roadmap for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit. The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start-ups.[220]
During subsequent five-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi-media, nano- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy. Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products. Low-return, water-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products. As part of the shift to a "green economy" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water-saving technologies. Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought-resistantgenetically modified crops developed.[220]
The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high-tech sectors.[220]
The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies. Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1.97 billion) in two years. The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32.8 billion tenges (US$80.7 million) of investment into the country.
Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program.[222]
Demographics
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Kazakhstan ranks 25th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Kazakhstan's GHI score is 5.3, which indicates a low level of hunger.[223]
TheUS Census Bureau International Database lists the population of Kazakhstan as 18.9 million (May 2019),[224] while United Nations sources such as the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects[225][226] give an estimate of 19,196,465. Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 20 million as of November 2023.[227] In 2013, Kazakhstan's population rose to 17,280,000 with a 1.7 percent growth rate over the past year according to the Kazakhstan Statistics Agency.[228]
The 2009 population estimate is 6.8 percent higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999. The decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed. Men and women make up 48.3 and 51.7 percent of the population, respectively.
The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country'sRussians,Ukrainians andVolga Germans, a process that began in the 1970s. This has made indigenous Kazakhs the largest ethnic group.[236] Additional factors in the increase in the Kazakhstani population are higher birthrates andimmigration of ethnic Kazakhs from China,Mongolia, and Russia.
Kazakhstan is officially a bilingual country.[237]Kazakh (part of theKipchak sub-branch of theTurkic languages)[238] is proficiently spoken by 80.1% of the population according to 2021 census,[239]: 323 and has the status of "state language".Russian, on the other hand, is spoken by 83.7% as of 2021.[240] It has equal status to Kazakh as an "official language", and is used routinely in business, government, and inter-ethnic communication.[241] However, only 63.4% of ethnic Kazakhs and 49.3% of the country's population are daily speakers of Kazakh language, according to the same census.[239]: 382
The government announced in January 2015 that theLatin alphabet will replaceCyrillic as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025.[242] Other minority languages spoken in Kazakhstan includeUzbek,Ukrainian,Uyghur,Kyrgyz,Tatar, andGerman. English, as well as Turkish, have gained popularity among younger people since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Education across Kazakhstan is conducted in either Kazakh, Russian, or both.[243] In Nazarbayev's resignation speech of 2019, he projected that the people of Kazakhstan in the future will speak three languages (Kazakh, Russian and English).[244]
Kazakhstan is asecular state whose constitution guarantees religious freedoms. Article 39 of the constitution states: "Human rights and freedoms shall not be restricted in any way." Article 14 prohibits "discrimination on religious basis" and Article 19 ensures that everyone has the "right to determine and indicate or not to indicate his/her ethnic, party and religious affiliation." The Constitutional Council affirmed these rights in a 2009 declaration, which stated that a proposed law limiting the rights of certain individuals to practice their religion was declared unconstitutional.[245]
Islam is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed byEastern Orthodox Christianity. After decades ofreligious suppression by the Soviet Union, the coming of independence witnessed a surge in the expression of ethnic identity, partly through religion. The free practice ofreligious beliefs and the establishment of full freedom of religion led to an increase of religious activity. Hundreds of mosques, churches, and other religious structures were built in the span of a few years, with the number of religious associations rising from 670 in 1990 to 4,170 today.[246]
Some figures show thatnon-denominational Muslims[247] form the majority, while others indicate that most Muslims in the country areSunnis following theHanafi school.[248] These include ethnicKazakhs, who constitute about 7% of the population, as well as ethnicUzbeks,Uighurs, andTatars.[249] Less than 1% are part of the SunniShafi`i school (primarilyChechens). There are also someAhmadi Muslims.[250] There are a total of 2,300 mosques,[246] all of them are affiliated with the "Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan", headed by a suprememufti.[251] Unaffiliated mosques are forcefully closed.[252]Eid al-Adha is recognised as a national holiday.[246] One quarter of the population is Russian Orthodox, including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.[253] Other Christian groups includeRoman Catholics,Greek Catholics, andProtestants.[249] There are a total of 258 Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches (9Greek Catholic), and over 500 Protestant churches and prayer houses. The Russian Orthodox Christmas is recognised as a national holiday in Kazakhstan.[246] Other religious groups include Judaism, theBaháʼí Faith,Hinduism,Buddhism, andthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[249]
According to the 2009 Census data, there are few Christians outside the Slavic and Germanic ethnic groups.[254]
Education is universal and mandatory through to thesecondary level and theadult literacy rate is 99.5%.[255] On average, these statistics are equal for both women and men in Kazakhstan.[256]
Education consists of three main phases: primary education (forms 1–4), basic general education (forms 5–9) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12) divided into continued general education and vocational education. Vocational Education usually lasts three or four years.[257] (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre-school education.) These levels can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g., primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialised schools, magnet schools,gymnasiums,lyceums and linguistic and technical gymnasiums have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools.[255]
At present, there areuniversities,academies and institutes,conservatories, higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of theBachelor's degree; specialised higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education which leads to the master's degree. Postgraduate education leads to theKandidat Nauk ("Candidate of Sciences") and the Doctor of Sciences (PhD). With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed.
Over 2,500 students in Kazakhstan have applied for student loans totalling about $9 million. The largest number of student loans come from Almaty, Astana and Kyzylorda.[258]
The training and skills development programs in Kazakhstan are also supported by international organisations. For example, on 30 March 2015, the World Banks' Group of Executive Directors approved a $100 million loan for the Skills and Job project in Kazakhstan.[259] The project aims to provide training to unemployed, unproductively self-employed, and employees in need of training.[259]
A Kazakhstani performer demonstrates the long equestrian heritage as part of the gala concert during the opening ceremonies of the Central Asian Peacekeeping Battalion.
Before the Russian colonisation, the Kazakhs had a highly developed culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy.Islam was introduced into the region with the arrival of theArabs in the 8th century. It initially took hold in the southern parts ofTurkestan and spread northward.[260] TheSamanids helped the religion take root through zealous missionary work. TheGolden Horde further propagated Islam amongst the tribes in the region during the 14th century.[261]
Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Kazakhstan and it is joining the international tourism networking. In 2010, Kazakhstan joined The Region Initiative (TRI) which is a Tri-regional Umbrella of Tourism-related organisations. TRI is functioning as a link between three regions: South Asia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe. Armenia, Bangladesh, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Ukraine are now partners, and Kazakhstan is linked with other South Asian, Eastern European, and Central Asian countries in the tourism market.
Kazakh literature is defined as "the body of literature, bothoral and written, produced in theKazakh language by theKazakh people of Central Asia".[262] Kazakh literature expands from the current territory of Kazakhstan, also including the era ofKazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, Kazakh recognised territory under theRussian Empire and theKazakh Khanate. There is some overlap with several complementary themes, including the literature of Turkic tribes that inhabited Kazakhstan over the course of its history and literature written by ethnic Kazakhs.
According to Chinese written sources from the 6th–8th centuries CE, the Turkic tribes of Kazakhstan had an oral poetry tradition. These came from earlier periods and were primarily transmitted bybards: professional storytellers and musical performers.[263] Traces of this tradition are shown onOrkhon script stone carvings dated 5th–7th centuries CE that describe rule of Kultegin and Bilge, two early Turkic rulers ("kagans").[citation needed] Amongst the Kazakhs, the bard was a primarily, though not exclusively, male profession. Since at least the 17th century, Kazakh bards could be divided into two main categories: the jıraws (jiraus, jyraus), who passed on the works of others, usually not creating and adding their own original work; and theaqyns (akyns), who improvised or created their own poems, stories or songs.[262] There were several types of works, such asdidactictermes,elegiactolgaws, andepicjırs.[262] Although the origins of such tales are often unknown, most of them were associated with bards of the recent or more distant past, who supposedly created them or passed them on, by the time most Kazakh poetry and prose was first written down in the second half of the 19th century.[262] There are clear stylistic differences between works first created in the 19th century, and works dating from earlier periods but not documented before the 19th century, such as those attributed to such 16th- and 17th-century bards as Er Shoban and Dosmombet Jıraw (also known as Dospambet Jyrau; he appeared to have been literate, and reportedly visitedConstantinople), and even to such 15th-century bards as Shalkiz and Asan Qayghı.[262]
Other notable bards include Kaztugan Jyrau, Jiembet Jyrau, Axtamberdy Jyrau, and Buxar Jyrau Kalkamanuly, who was an advisor toAblai Khan, and whose works have been preserved by Mäšhür Jüsip Köpeev.[263]Er Targhın andAlpamıs are two of the most famous examples of Kazakh literature to be recorded in the 19th century.[262] TheBook of Dede Korkut and Oguz Name (a story of an ancient Turkic kingOghuz Khan) are the most well-known Turkic heroic legends. Initially created around the 9th century CE, they were passed on through generations in oral form. The legendary tales were recorded by Turkish authors in 14–16th centuries C.E.[264][265]
The preeminent role in the development of modern literary Kazakh belongs toAbai Qunanbaiuly (Kazakh:Абай Құнанбайұлы, sometimes Russified to Abay Kunanbayev, Абай Кунанбаев) (1845–1904), whose writings did much to preserve Kazakh folk culture. Abai's major work isThe Book of Words (Kazakh:қара сөздері, Qara sözderi), a philosophical treatise and collection of poems where he criticises Russian colonial policies and encourages other Kazakhs to embrace education and literacy. The literary magazinesAy Qap (published between 1911 and 1915 in Arabic script) andQazaq (published between 1913 and 1918) played an important role in the development of the intellectual and political life among early 20th-century Kazakhs.[266]
The modern state of Kazakhstan is home to the Kazakh State Kurmangazy Orchestra of Folk Instruments, the Kazakh State Philharmonic Orchestra, the Kazakh National Opera and the Kazakh State Chamber Orchestra. The folk instrument orchestra was named afterKurmangazy Sagyrbayuly, a famous composer and dombra player from the 19th century. The Musical-Dramatic Training College, founded in 1931, was the first institute of higher education for music. Two years later, the Orchestra of Kazakh Folk Musical Instruments was formed.[267]The Foundation Asyl Mura is archiving and publishing historical recordings of great samples of Kazakh music both traditional and classical. The leading conservatoire is in Almaty, the Qurmanghazy Conservatoire. It competes with the national conservatoire in Astana, Kazakhstan's capital.
When referring to traditional Kazakh music, authentic folklore must be separated from "folklorism". The latter denotes music executed by academically trained performers who aim at preserving the traditional music for coming generations. As far as can be reconstructed, the music of Kazakhstan from the period before a strong Russian influence consists of instrumental music and vocal music. Instrumental music, with the pieces ("Küy") being performed by soloists. Text is often seen in the background (or "program") for the music, as many Küy titles refer to stories. Vocal music, either as part of a ceremony such as a wedding (mainly performed by women), or as part of a feast. Here we might divide into subgenres: epic singing, containing not only historical facts, but as well the tribe's genealogy, love songs, and didactic verses; and as a special form the composition of two or more singers in public (Aitys), of dialogue character and usually unexpectedly frankly in content.
A-Studio was created in 1982 inAlmaty, then called Alma-Ata, hence called "Alma-Ata Studio".
The Russian influence on the music life in Kazakhstan can be seen in two spheres: first, the introduction of musical academic institutions such as concert houses with opera stages, and conservatories, where European music was performed and taught, and second, by trying to incorporate Kazakh traditional music into these academic structures. Controlled first by theRussian Empire and then theSoviet Union, Kazakhstan's folk and classical traditions became connected withethnic Russian music and Western European music. Prior to the 20th century, Kazakh folk music was collected and studied byethnographic research teams including composers, music critics andmusicologists. In the first part of the 19th century, Kazakh music was transcribed in linearnotation. Some composers of this era set Kazakh folk songs to Russian-styleEuropean classical music.
The Kazakhs themselves, however, did not write their own music in notation until 1931. Later, as part of the Soviet Union, Kazakh folk culture was encouraged in a sanitised manner designed to avoid political and social unrest. The result was a bland derivative of real Kazakh folk music. In 1920,Aleksandr Zatayevich, a Russian official, created major works of art music with melodies and other elements of Kazakh folk music. Beginning in 1928 and accelerating in the 1930s, he also adapted traditional Kazakh instruments for use in Russian-style ensembles, such as by increasing the number offrets andstrings. Soon, these styles of modern orchestral playing became the only way for musicians to officially play; Kazakh folk was turned into patriotic, professional and socialist endeavours.[268]
In Kazakhstan, the fine arts, in the classical sense, have their origins in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. It was largely influenced by Russian artists, such as Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who intensively travelled in Central Asia. Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists. The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteyev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed in 1984.[269]
The Kazakh school of fine arts was fully formed by the 1940s and flourished in the 1950s. Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art. The painters O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, K. Telzhanov, and S. Aitbaev, graphic artists E. Sidorkina and A. Duzelkhanov, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art.
In the national cuisine, livestock meat, likehorse meat[270] andbeef can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products. Refreshments include black tea, often served with milk and dried fruits (such as dried apricots) and nuts. In southern provinces, people often prefergreen tea. Traditional milk-derived drinks such asayran,shubat andkymyz. A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a variety of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such aspilaf andbeshbarmak. They also drink their national beverage,kumys, which consists of fermented mare's milk.[271]
Kazakh boxers are generally well known in the world. In the last three Olympic Games, their performance was assessed as one of the best and they had more medals than any country in the world, exceptCuba and Russia (in all three games). In 1996 and 2004, three Kazakhstani boxers (Vassiliy Jirov in 1996,Bakhtiyar Artayev in 2004 andSerik Sapiyev in 2012) were recognised as the best boxers for their techniques with theVal Barker Trophy, awarded to the best boxer of the tournament. Inboxing, Kazakhstan performed well in the2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Two boxers,Bekzat Sattarkhanov andYermakhan Ibraimov, earnedgold medals. Another two boxers,Bulat Zhumadilov andMukhtarkhan Dildabekov, earnedsilver medals.Oleg Maskaev, born inZhambyl, representing Russia, was theWBC Heavyweight Champion after knocking outHasim Rahman on 12 August 2006. The reigningWBA, WBC, IBF andIBOmiddleweight champion is Kazakh boxerGennady Golovkin.Natascha Ragosina, representing Russia, but fromQarağandy held seven versions of the women's super middleweight title, and two heavyweight titles during her boxing career. She holds the record as the longest-reigning WBA female super middleweight champion, and the longest-reigning WBC female super middleweight champion.
Kazakhstan journalist Artur Platonov won Best Script for his documentary "Sold Souls" about Kazakhstan's contribution to the struggle against terrorism at the 2013 Cannes Corporate Media and TV Awards.[278][279]
Serik Aprymov'sLittle Brother (Bauyr) won at the Central and Eastern Europe Film FestivalgoEast from the German Federal Foreign Office.[280]
Kazakhstan is ranked 161 out of 180 countries on theReporters Without BordersWorld Press Freedom Index[281] A mid-March 2002court order, with the government as aplaintiff, stated thatRespublika were to stop printing for three months.[282] The order was evaded by printing under other titles, such asNot That Respublika.[282] In early 2014, a court also issued a cease publication order to the small-circulationAssandi-Times newspaper, saying it was a part of the Respublika group. Human Rights Watch said: "this absurd case displays the lengths to which Kazakh authorities are willing to go to bully critical media into silence."[283]
With support from the US Department of State'sBureau for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), the American Bar Association Rule of Law Initiative opened a media support centre in Almaty to assist press outlets in Kazakhstan.[284]
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