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| Pronunciation | [kàtʰɤːj] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Trans women,androgynous people,effeminategay men | ||||
| Classification | Gender expression | ||||
| Other terms | |||||
| Synonyms | Ladyboy,phuying praphet song,phet thi sam,sao praphet song | ||||
| Associated terms | Bakla,Khanith,Kothi,Hijra,Two-spirit,Trans woman,Akava'ine | ||||
| Demographics | |||||
| Frequency | up to 0.6% male (2011 estimate)[citation needed] | ||||
| |||||
| Legal information | |||||
| Recognition | Yes, limited | ||||
| Protection | None | ||||
Kathoey orkatoey (Khmer:ខ្ទើយ,khtəəy;Lao:ກະເທີຍ,ka thœ̄i,Lao pronunciation:[kàtʰɤːj];Thai:กะเทย;RTGS: kathoei,Thai pronunciation:[kàtʰɤːj]), commonly translated asladyboys inEnglish, is a term used by some people inCambodia,Laos, andThailand who wereassigned male at birth andpresent astransfeminine oreffeminate.Transgender women in Thailand mostly use terms other thankathoey when referring to themselves, such asphuying (Thai:ผู้หญิง, 'woman'). In the context ofThai gender norms, many perceivekathoeys as belonging to athird gender.[1]
In the face of the manysociopolitical obstacles thatkathoeys navigate in Thailand,kathoey activism has led to constitutional protection from unjust gender discrimination as of January 2015, but a separate third gender category has not yet been legally recognized.[2]
Androgynous men inKhmer society were observed by Chinese explorerZhou Daguan who visitedAngkor Wat in 1296–1297. InThe Customs of Cambodia he records the presence oferxingren (二形人, literally "two-formed persons") who tried to "lure Chinese men by promising them sumptuous gifts".[3]
A 19th-century interpretation of theChbab Srey is also said to contain mentions of "malicious" women being punished in the "four hells" and being reincarnated askathoey.[4][unreliable source?]
The wordkathoey is ofKhmerខ្ទើយkhteuy.[5] It is most often translated asladyboy in English conversation, an expression that has become popular acrossSoutheast Asia.[citation needed]
A study of 195 Thai transgender women found that most of the participants referred to themselves asphuying (ผู้หญิง 'women'), with a minority referring to themselves asphuying praphet song ('second kind of woman') and very few referring to themselves askathoey.[6] Related phrases includephet thi sam (เพศที่สาม, 'third sex'), andsao praphet song orphu ying praphet song (สาวประเภทสอง,ผู้หญิงประเภทสอง—both meaning 'second-type female').[citation needed]
Althoughkathoey is often translated as 'transgender woman' in English, this term is not correct in Thailand. As well as transgender people, the term can refer togay men, and was originally used to refer to androgynous people.[5] Before the 1960s, the use ofkathoey included anyone who deviated from the dominant sexual norms.[7] Because of this confusion in translation, theEnglish translation ofkathoey is usually 'ladyboy' (or variants of the term).
Use of the termkathoey suggests that the personself-identifies as a type of male, in contrast tosao praphet song (which, like "trans woman", suggests a "female" (sao) identity), and in contrast tophet thi sam ('third sex'). The termphu ying praphet song, which can be translated as 'second-type female', is also used to refer tokathoey.[8]: 146 Australian scholar of sexual politics in ThailandPeter Jackson claims that the termkathoey was used in antiquity to refer tointersex people, and that the connotation changed in the mid-20th century to covercross-dressing males.[9]kathoey became an iconic symbol of modern Thai culture.[10] The term can refer to males who exhibit varying degrees of femininity. Many dress as women and undergo "feminising" medical procedures such asbreast implants,hormones,silicone injections, orAdam's apple reductions. Others may wear make-up and use femininespeech patterns, but dress as men, and are closer to the Western category ofeffeminate gay man than transgender.
The termkathoey may be considered pejorative, especially in the formkathoey-saloey. It has a meaning similar to the English language 'fairy' or 'queen'.[11]kathoey can also be seen as a derogatory word for those who are gay.[12]
In Buddhism there are a variety of interpretations on how to relate tokathoey and transgender people. Some within theTheravada school of Buddhism see being akathoey as the result of karmic punishment for previous lifetimes.[13] Bunmi, aThai Buddhist author, believes that homosexuality stems from "lower level spirits" (phi-sang-thewada), a factor that is influenced by one's past life.[5] Some Buddhists viewkathoeys as persons born with a disability as a consequence of past sins.[5][dubious –discuss] Using the notion ofkarma, some Thais believe that being akathoey is the result of transgressions inpast lives, concluding thatkathoeys deserve pity rather than blame.[14] Others, however, believe thatkathoeys should rectify their past life transgressions.[15] This is done throughmerit-making such as "making donations to a temple or by ordaining as monks".[15] While other Buddhists believe that the Buddha was never hostile to LGBT people and therefore that seeing being LGBT as a karmic punishment is a mistaken interpretation.[16]
In northern Thailand,kathoeys, women, and gay men are considered to have soft souls and are therefore easily frightened and highly susceptible to possession.[17] These three groups are heavily represented inspirit summoning since people without soft souls are considered immune to possession.[17] Despite this,kathoeys being a large proportion of the spirit medium population is a modern phenomenon since there is little evidence thatkathoeys were associated with religious practice and were banned from religious ceremony before the modern period.[18] In rural areas in north Thailand,kathoeys have taken on jobs as spirit mediums where they become known asKathoey maa-khii.[19] Spirit mediumship providekathoeys with a source of income as well as a support network.[19]
During thefestival of the nine gods in southern Thailand,kathoeys participate as spiritual mediums of the godKaun Im.[20] The southern Thailand tradition of the spirit mediumNora dance has traditionally been a primarily male performance.[21] However, women andkathoeys have become an increasingly large proportion of the performers, with a majority male performers in 2014 being either gay men orkathoeys.[22]
In Thai cities such as Bangkok, there are currently two to threegender-affirming surgery (GAS) operations per week, more than 3,500 over the past thirty years.[23] With the massive increase in GASs, there has also been an increase in prerequisites, measures that must be taken in order to be eligible for the operation. Patients must be at least 18 years old with permission from parents if under 20 years old.[24] One must provide evidence of diagnosis ofgender dysphoria from a psychologist or psychiatrist. Before going through gender-affirming surgery, one must be on hormones/antiandrogens for at least one year.[24] Patients must have a note from the psychiatrist or clinical psychologist. Two months prior to the surgery, patients are required to see a psychiatrist in Thailand to confirm eligibility for gender-affirming surgery.
Kathoeys are more visible and more accepted in Thai culture than transgender people are in other countries in the world. Several popular Thai models, singers, and movie stars arekathoeys, and Thai newspapers often printphotographs of the winners of female andkathoey beauty contests side by side. The phenomenon is not restricted to urban areas; there arekathoeys in most villages, andkathoey beauty contests are commonly held as part of local fairs.[citation needed]
A common stereotype is that older, well-offkathoeysprovide financial support toyoung men with whom they are in romantic relationships.[25]
Kathoeys currently face many social and legal impediments. Families (and especially fathers) are typically disappointed if a child becomes akathoey, andkathoeys often have to face the prospect of disclosing their birth sex. However,kathoeys generally have greater acceptance in Thailand than most other East Asian countries.[26] Problems can also arise in regards to access to amenities and gender allocation.
Manykathoeys work in predominately female occupations, such as in shops, restaurants, andbeauty salons, but also in factories (a reflection of Thailand's high proportion of female industrial workers).[27] Discrimination in employment is rampant as many perceivekathoeys as having mental problems and refuse to hire them.[28] In addition, the difficulty forkathoeys to change their gender marker on official documentation makes finding employment harder.[29][30] For these reasons, manykathoeys are only able to find work in sex and entertainment industries.[28] These sorts of jobs include tourist centers, cabarets, andsex work.[28]Kathoeys who work in the tourism sector must conform to a physical image that is preferred by tourists.[28]Kathoeys who obtain jobs in the civil service sector are required to wear uniforms coinciding with their assigned sex of male.[31] In 2011, the short-lived airlineP.C. Air began hiringkathoeys as flight attendants.[32][33]
In rural areas in northern Thailand, somekathoeys have acquired jobs picking fruit from trees.[19] According to rural traditions men and women perform separate roles in the process of collecting fruit. Men climb trees while women collect fruit in baskets below. However,kathoeys are allowed to perform both roles.[19]Kathoeys in rural areas in northern Thailand have begun acquiring jobs as spirit mediums as well.[19]
Many schools teach students that being transgender is wrong and a form of sexual deviancy.[15] Thai schools utilize gendered uniforms as well.[34] In 2015,Bangkok University revised its uniform guidelines to allow transgender students to wear the uniform of their preferred gender; however, many other institutions still mandate transgender students to wear the uniform that matches their assigned sex.[34] Severalkathoey and transgender women choose which schools to attend based mainly on the ability to wear the gendered school uniform they prefer.[35] Somekathoeys report facing violence and discrimination from both their classmates and their teachers at all levels of schooling due to them being akathoey.[36] This has led to some dropping out or changing schools.[37]
Thailand's 2015 Gender Equality Act is currently the strongest legal tool for advocating for transgender rights.[31] It protects those who are "of a different appearance from his/her own sex by birth" from unfair gender discrimination.[34] Prior to the creation of the 2016 Thai constitution, it was believed that anti-discrimination terms would be set for a new category called 'third gender'.[34] This term, however, was missing from the new constitution and no protections for transgender people were specifically outlined.[34] Instead, the constitution prohibited "unjust discrimination" based on differences in sex.[34]
Legal recognition ofkathoeys and transgender people is nonexistent in Thailand: even if a transgender person has had sex reassignment surgery, they are not allowed to change their legal sex on theiridentification documents.[31] Identification documents are particularly important for daily life in Thailand as they facilitate communication with businesses, bureaucratic agencies (i.e., signing up for educational courses or medical care), law enforcement, etc.[31] The primary identification form used in Thailand isThe Thai National Identification Card, which is used for many important processes such as opening a bank account.[31] The vast majority of transgender people are unable to change these documents to reflect their chosen gender, and those who are allowed must uphold strict standards.[38] Transgender individuals are often accused of falsifying documents and are forced to show their identification documents.[31] This results in their exclusion from various institutions like education or housing.[31] Impeded by these identity cards on a daily basis, transgender people are "outed" by society.[39]
The criminal justice sector relies on identification cards when deciding where to detain individuals.[31] This means thatkathoeys are detained alongside men.[31] By law, women are not allowed to be detained alongside men, and sincekathoeys are not legally classified as women, they reside in the male section in prison.[31] Within prison,kathoeys are forced to cut their hair and abide by strict rules governing gender expression.[31] Additionally, they are denied access tohormones and other transition-related health care.[31]
Transgender individuals were automatically exempted from compulsory military service in Thailand.Kathoeys were deemed to suffer from "mental illness" or "permanent mental disorder".[40] These mental disorders were required to appear on their military service documents, which are accessible to future employers. In 2006, the ThaiNational Human Rights Commission (NHRC) overturned the use of discriminatory phraseology in Thailand's military service exemption documents.[40] With Thai law banning citizens from changing their sex on their identification documents, everyone under the male category must attend a "lottery day" where they are randomly selected to enlist in the army for two years. In March 2008, the military added a "third category" for transgender people that dismissed them from service due to "illness that cannot be cured within 30 days".[41] In 2012, the Administrative Court ruled that the Military and Defense needed to revise the reasoning for their exemption ofkathoeys from the military.[31] As such,kathoeys are now exempt from the military under the reasoning that their "gender does not match their sex at birth".[31]
Kathoeys began to gain prominence in thecinema of Thailand during the late-1980s.[42] The depiction at first was negative by showingkathoeys suffering bad karma, suicide, and abandoned by straight lovers.[42] Named by the Thai cinema scholar Oradol Kaewprasert,[43]The First Wave of Thai Queer Cinema was a wave of films that depicted stories focused solely on queer storylines.[44] One of these films includeThe Last Song (1985) directed by Pisal Akkrasenee, the first ever Thai film to have akathoey actress as the lead role.[43] The main character,Somying, was named after the actress portraying her,Somying Daorai, the name meaning "a proper woman" in Thai.[43] The film director, Pisal Akkrasenee, had stated he wanted the film to portray the tragic experience of beingkathoey in Thailand.[44]
Independent and experimental films contributed to defying sexual norms in gay cinema in the 1990s.[45] The 2000 filmThe Iron Ladies, directed byYongyoot Thongkongtoon, depicted a positive portrayal of an almost entirelykathoey volleyball team by displaying their confidence.[42] In 2003, the filmBeautiful Boxer, directed byEkachai Uekrongtham, told the story of a famouskathoeyMaui Thai fighter namedParinya Charoenphol. The film was referenced in the bookMovies and Mental Illness: Using Films to Understand Psychopathology for the film's focus and commentary ongender dysphoria.[46] The rising middle-class in Bangkok and vernacular queer culture made the mainstream portrayal ofkathoeys more popular on television and in art house cinemas.[47] Leading to the creation of a sub-genre in Thai cinema calledKathoey-films.[48]
Feminine beauty in Thailand allowed transgender people to have their own platform where they are able to challenge stereotypes and claim cultural recognition.[49]Miss Tiffany's Universe is a beauty contest opened to all transgender women. Beginning in 1998, the pageant takes place every May in Pattaya, Thailand. With over 100 applicants, the pageant is considered to be one of the most popular transgender pageants in the world. Through beauty pageants, Thailand has been able to promote the country's cosmetic surgery industry, which has had a massive increase inmedical tourism forsex reassignment surgery. According to the Miss Tiffany's Universe website, the live broadcast attracts record of fifteen million viewers. The winner of the pageant receives a tiara, sash, car, and a grand prize of 100,000baht (US$3,000), equivalent to an annual wage for a Thai factory worker.[50] The assistant manager director, Alisa Phanthusak, stated that the pageant wantskathoeys to be visible and to treat them as normal.[2] It is the biggest annual event inPattaya.[51]
Transgender beauty contests are found in the countryside at village fairs or festivals.[5] All-male revues are common in gay bars inBangkok and as drag shows in the tourist resort ofPattaya.[5]
In 1993, Thailand's teacher training colleges implemented a semi-formal ban on allowing homosexual (which includedkathoey) students enrolling in courses leading to qualification for positions in kindergartens and primary schools. In January 1997, theRajabhat Institutes (the governing body of the colleges) announced it would formalize the ban, which would extend to all campuses at the start of the 1997 academic year. The ban was quietly rescinded later in the year, following the replacement of the Minister of Education.[8]: xv–xiv
In 1996, a volleyball team composed mostly of gays andkathoeys, known asThe Iron Ladies (Thai:สตรีเหล็ก,satree lek), laterportrayed in two Thai movies, won the Thai national championship. The Thai government, concerned with the country's image, barred two of thekathoeys from joining the national team and competing internationally.
Among the most famouskathoeys in Thailand isNong Tum, a former championThai boxer who emerged into the public eye in 1998. She would present in a feminine manner and had commenced hormone therapy while still a popular boxer; she would enter the ring with long hair and make-up, occasionally kissing a defeated opponent. She announced her retirement from professional boxing in 1999 – undergoing gender reassignment surgery, while continuing to work as a coach, and taking up acting and modeling. She returned to boxing in 2006.
In 2004, the Chiang Mai Technology School allocated a separate restroom forkathoeys, with an intertwined male and female symbol on the door. The school's fifteenkathoey students were required to wear male clothing at school but were allowed to sport feminine hairdos. The restroom featured four stalls and no urinals.[52]
Following the2006 Thai coup d'état,kathoeys are hoping for a new third sex to be added to passports and other official documents in a proposed new constitution.[53] In 2007, legislative efforts have begun to allowkathoeys to change their legal sex if they have undergone gender reassignment surgery; this latter restriction was controversially discussed in the community.[54]
Bell Nuntita, a contestant of theThailand's Got Talent TV show, became aYouTube hit when she first performed singing as a girl and then switched to a masculine voice.[55]
It is estimated that as many as six in every thousand people assigned male at birth later present themselves as transgender women orphu ying kham phet.[10]
Thai activists have mobilized for over two decades to secure sexual diversity rights.[56] Beauty pageant winnerYollada Suanyot, known as Nok, founded the Trans Female Association of Thailand on the basis of changing sex designation on identification cards for post-operative transgender women.[56] Nok promoted the termphuying kham-phet instead ofkathoey but was controversial because of its connotation with gender identity disorder.[56] The goal of the Thai Transgender Alliance is to delistgender dysphoria from international psychological diagnostic criteria. The Alliance uses the termkathoey to advocate for transgender identity.[56] A common protest sign during sexual rights marches isKathoey mai chai rok-jit meaning "Kathoey are not mentally ill".[56]
Activism in Thailand is discouraged if it interferes with official policy.[57] In January 2006, the Thai Network of People Living WithHIV/AIDS had their offices raided after demonstrations against Thai-US foreign trade agreements.[57] Under the Thai Constitution of 1997, the right to be free of discrimination based on health conditions helped to minimize the stigma against communities living with HIV/AIDS.[57] In most cases, governments and their agencies fail to protect transgender people against these exclusions.[10] There is a lack of HIV/AIDS services for specifically transgender people, and feminizing hormones largely go without any medical monitoring.[10]
Trans prejudice has produced discriminatory behaviors that have led to the exclusion of transgender people from economic and social activity.[58] Worldwide, transgender people face discrimination amongst family members, in religious and educational settings, and the workplace.[10] Accepted mainly in fashion-related jobs or show business, transgender people are discriminated against in the job market and have limited job opportunities.[56]Kathoeys have also experienced ridicule from coworkers and tend to have lower salaries.[12] Long-term unemployment reduces the chances of contributing to welfare for the family and lowers self-esteem, causing a higher likelihood of prostitution in specialized bars.[10] "Ladyboy" bars also can provide a sense of community and reinforces a female sense of identity forkathoeys.[10] Harassment from the police is evident especially forkathoeys who work on the streets.[10]Kathoeys may be rejected in official contexts being denied entry or services.[12]
Based on a study byAIDS Care participants who identified as a girl orkathoey at an early age were more likely to be exposed to prejudice or violence from men in their families.[59]Kathoeys are more subjected to sexual attacks from men than are other homosexuals.[8]
Anjaree is one of Thailand's gay feminist organizations, established in mid-1986 by women's right activists.[60] The organization advocated wider public understanding of homosexuality based on the principles of human rights. The first public campaign opposing sexual irregularity was launched in 1996.[61]
Social spaces are often limited forkathoeys even if Thai society does not actively persecute them.[12] Indigenous Thai cultural traditions have given a social space for sexual minorities.[10] In January 2015, the Thai government announced it would recognize the third sex in its constitution in order to ensure all sexes be treated equally under the law.[2]
The first all-kathoeymusic group in Thailand was formed in 2006. It is named "Venus Flytrap" and was selected and promoted bySony BMG Music Entertainment.[62] "The Lady Boys of Bangkok" is akathoeyrevue that has been performed in the UK since 1998, touring the country in both theatres and the famous "Sabai Pavilion"[63] for nine months each year.
Ladyboys, also a popular term used in Thailand when referring to transgender women, was the title of a popular documentary inthe United Kingdom, where it was aired onChannel 4 TV in 1992 and was directed byJeremy Marre. Marre aimed to portray the life of two adolescentkathoeys living in rural Thailand, as they strove to land a job at a cabaret revue inPattaya.
Thaikathoey style and fashion has largely borrowed from Korean popular culture.[64]
"Uncle Go Paknam", created by Pratchaya Phanthathorn, is a popular queer advice column that first appeared in 1975 in a magazine titledPlaek, meaning 'strange'.[7] Through letters and responses it became an outlet to express the desires and necessities of the queer community in Thailand.[7] The magazine achieved national popularity because of its bizarre and often gay content.[7] It portrayed positive accounts ofkathoeys and men called "sharks" who view transgender people as legitimate or even preferred sexual partners and started a more accepting public discourse in Thailand.[7] Under the pen name of Phan Thathron he wrote the column "Girls to the Power of 2" that included profiles ofkathoeys in a glamorous or erotic pose.[7] "Girls to the Power of 2" were the first accounts ofkathoey lives based on interviews that allowed their voices to be published in the mainstream press of Thailand.[7] The heterosexual public became more inclined to read about transgender communities that were previously given negative press in Thai newspapers.[7] Go Paknam's philosophy was "kathoeys are good (for men)."[7]
A documentary entitledInside Thailand's Third Gender examines the lives ofkathoeys in Thailand and features interviews with various transgender women, the obstacles these people face with their family and lovers, but moreover on a larger societal aspect where they feel ostracized by the religious Thai culture. Following contestants participating in one of the largest transgender beauty pageants, known asMiss Tiffany's Universe, the film not only illustrates the process and competition that takes place during the beauty pageant, but also highlights the systems of oppression that take place to target the transgender community in Thailand.[citation needed]
In a recent interpretation of the Cbpab Srei written c. 1800, there is a reference in lines 184–186 of "malicious" women suffering punishment from the "four hells" as being reincarnated as kathoey
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