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There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst theKashmiri diaspora in other states of India.[19] Most Kashmiri speakers are located in theKashmir Valley and other surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir.[20] In the Kashmir Valley, Kashmiri speakers form the majority.
The Kashmiri language is one of the22 scheduled languages ofIndia.[21] It was a part of theEighth Schedule in the former constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in theSixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.[22] AfterHindi, Kashmiri is the second fastest growinglanguage of India, followed byMeitei (Manipuri) as well asGujarati in the third place, andBengali in the fourth place, according to the2011 census of India.[23]
Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during theDogra rule.[24][25] In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory ofJammu and Kashmir for the first time.[26][27][28]Poguli andKishtwari are closely related to Kashmiri, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.
Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent ofAzad Kashmir's population.[18] According to the1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir.[29] Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir,[30][31] particularly in the districts ofMuzaffarabad (15%),Neelam (20%) andHattian (15%), with very small minorities inHaveli (5%) andBagh (2%).[29] The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although stillintelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north.[31] In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue.[31] The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularlyKupwara.[31] At the2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.[32][33]
A process oflanguage shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguistTariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local languages such asPahari-Pothwari,Hindko or move towards thelingua francaUrdu.[34][30][35][31] This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri.[36][37] There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims ofAzad Kashmir have seen as their identity symbol.[38] Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.[38]
Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the threesibilant consonantss ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit asdvi-, has developed intoba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, butdu- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stopd).Seventy-two isdusatath in Kashmiri,bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, anddvisaptati in Sanskrit.[42]
The Kashmiri language was traditionally written in theSharada script from the 8th Century AD onwards.[43] Between the 8th and the first quarter of the 20th century AD, Sharada was the primary script of inscriptional and literary production in Kashmir forSanskrit and Kashmiri.[44] With increased use of Persian script for writing Kashmiri in the 19th century AD, and the growth of otherbrahmic scripts such as Devanagari andTakri, the use of Sharada declined.[44] The Sharada script is inadequate for writing modern Kashmiri because it lacks sufficient signs to represent Kashmiri vowels.[44] Modern usage of Sharada is limited to religious ceremonies and rituals ofKashmiri Pandits, and forhoroscope-writing by them.[45][44]
Today Kashmiri is primarily written in Perso-Arabic (with some modifications, such as additions of new signs to represent Kashmiri vowels).[46][44] Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.[47]
The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script is recognized as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and theJammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.[48][49][50][51] The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has been derived fromPersian alphabet. The consonant inventory and their corresponding pronunciations of Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script doesn't differ from Perso-Arabic script, with the exception of the letterژ, which is pronounced as/t͡s/ instead of/ʒ/. However, the vowel inventory of Kashmiri is significantly larger than other Perso-Arabic derived or influenced South Asian Perso-Arabic scripts. There are 17 vowels in Kashmiri, shown withdiacritics, letters (alif,waw,ye), or both. In Kashmiri, the convention is that most vowel diacritics are written at all times.
Despite Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script cutting across religious boundaries and being used by both theKashmiri Hindus and theKashmiri Muslims,[52] some attempts have been made to give a religious outlook regarding the script and make Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script to be associated withKashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script to be associated with some sections ofKashmiri Hindu community.[53][54][55]
There have been a few versions of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri.[59]The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below.[60] This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal.[61][62] This version makes use of the vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signsकॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel[ə] and elongated schwa-like vowel[əː] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.
Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari.[63][64] The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signsकऺ /कऻ for the schwa-like vowel[ə] & elongated schwa-like vowel[əː] and a new stand alone vowelॵ and vowel signकॏ for the open-mid back rounded vowel[ɔ] which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel.
Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are noarticles, nor is there any grammatical distinction fordefiniteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.[68]
The Kashmirigender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, amorphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun.[68] A relatively small group of feminine nouns have uniquesuppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms.[71] The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:[72]
Process
Masculine
Feminine
Meaning
-en’ suffix
[d̪ukaːnd̪aːr]
دُکاندار
[d̪ukaːnd̪aːrenʲ]
دُکانداریٚنؠ
shopkeeper
-bāy suffix
[maːʃʈar]
ماشٹَر
[maːʃʈarbaːj]
ماشٹَر باے
teacher
-in’ + vowel change
[xar]
خَر
[xərinʲ]
خٔرِنؠ
donkey
-ür + vowel change
[pʰot̪]
پھۆت
[pʰɔt̪ɨr]
پھۄتٕر
basket
Adding of affix
[huːn]
ہوٗن
[huːnʲ]
ہوٗنؠ
dog/bitch
vowel change
[ɡaɡur]
گَگُر
[ɡaɡɨr]
گَگٕر
rat
consonant change
[hokʰ]
ہۆکھ
[hot͡ʃʰ]
ہۆچھ
dry
vowel/consonant change
[t̪ot̪]
تۆت
[t̪ət͡s]
تٔژ
hot
suppletive form
[marɨd̪]
مَرٕد
[zanaːnɨ]
زَنانہٕ
man/woman
masculine only
[kʲom]
کیٛۆم
---
insect
feminine only
---
[mət͡ʃʰ]
مٔچھ
housefly
Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.[71]
Kashmiri utilizes anergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense.[73] Thus, in these sentences, thesubject of atransitive verb is marked in the ergative case and theobject in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of anintransitive verb is marked.[73][74][75] However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case.[76] Other case distinctions, such aslocative,instrumental,genitive,comitative andallative, are marked bypostpositions rather than suffixation.[77]
Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense andperson, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions ofaspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus theinfinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of variousmodal auxiliaries.[79] Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.[80]
Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of thecopula and the imperfective suffix -/aːn/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):[81]
Present
Masculine
Feminine
1st person sing.
[t͡ʃʰusjiʋaːn] چھُس یِوان
[t͡ʃʰasjiʋaːn] چھَس یِوان
2nd person sing.
[t͡ʃʰukʰjiʋaːn] چھُکھ یِوان
[t͡ʃʰakʰjiʋaːn] چھَکھ یِوان
3rd person sing.
[t͡ʃʰujiʋaːn] چھُ یِوان
[t͡ʃʰejiʋaːn] چھےٚ یِوان
1st person pl.
[t͡ʃʰijiʋaːn] چھِ یِوان
[t͡ʃʰajiʋaːn] چھَ یِوان
2nd person pl.
[t͡ʃʰiʋjiʋaːn] چھِو یِوان
[t͡ʃʰaʋjiʋaːn] چھَو یِوان
3rd person pl.
[t͡ʃʰijiʋaːn] چھِ یِوان
[t͡ʃʰejiʋaːn] چھےٚ یِوان
Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions.[82] The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to completed past actions. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.[83]
As described above, Kashmiri is asplit-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative.[83] Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.[83][84]
Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):[85]
Simple past (transitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
[por] پۆر
[pərʲ] پٔرؠ
[pər] پٔر
[pari] پَرِ
2nd person
Non-honorific
[porut̪ʰ] پۆرُتھ
[pərit̪ʰ] پٔرِتھ
[pərɨt̪ʰ] پٔرٕتھ
[parʲat̪ʰ] پَرؠتھ
Honorific
[porʋɨ] پۆروٕ
[pəriʋɨ] پٔرِوٕ
[pərʋɨ] پٔروٕ
[pariʋɨ] پَرِوٕ
3rd person
[por] پۆر
[pərʲ] پٔرؠ
[pər] پٔر
[pari] پَرِ
A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.[86]
Simple past (special intransitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
-[us] اُس
-[ʲ] ؠ
-[as] اَس
-[i] اِ
2nd person
-[kʰ] کھ
-[ʋɨ] وٕ
-[kʰ] کھ
-[ʋɨ] وٕ
3rd person
-Ø
-Ø
-[t͡ʃʰ] چھ
-[i] اِ
Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.[87]
Simple past (intransitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
-[jas] یَس
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːjas] یے یَس
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
2nd person
-[jaːkʰ] یاکھ
-[jeːjiʋɨ] یے یِوٕ
-[jeːjakʰ] یے یَکھ
-[jeːjiʋɨ] یے یِوٕ
3rd person
-[joːʋ] یوو
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change.[88] Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:[89]
Indefinite past (transitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st/3rd person
-[joːʋ] یوو
-[eːji] ے یہِ
-[eːji] ے یہِ
-[eːji] ے یہِ
2nd person
-[joːt̪ʰ] یوتھ
-[eːjat̪ʰ] ے یَتھ
-[eːjat̪ʰ] ے یَتھ
-[eːjat̪ʰ] ے یَتھ
Remote past (transitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st/3rd person
-[eːjoːʋ] ے یوو
-[eːjaːji] ے یایہِ
-[eːjaːji] ے یایہِ
-[eːjaːji] ے یایہِ
2nd person
-[eːjoːt̪ʰ] ے یوتھ
-[eːjeːjat̪ʰ] ے یے یَتھ
-[eːjeːjat̪ʰ] ے یے یَتھ
-[eːjeːjat̪ʰ] ے یے یَتھ
As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:[90]
Indefinite past (special intransitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
-[aːs] اس
-[aːjas] ایَس
-[aːjas] ایَس
-[aːji] ایہِ
2nd person
-[kʰ] کھ
-[kʰ] کھ
-[aːjakʰ] ایَکھ
-[aːjiʋɨ] ایِوٕ
3rd person
-[aʋ] اَو
-[aːji] ایہِ
-[aːji] ایہِ
-[aːji] ایہِ
Remote past (special intransitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
-[aːjaːs] ایاس
-[eːjaːji] ے یایہِ
-[eːjeːjas] ے یے یَس
-[eːjeːji] ے یے یہِ
2nd person
-[aːkʰ] اکھ
-[eːjiʋɨ] ے یِوٕ
-[aːjakʰ] ایَکھ
-[aːjiʋɨ] ایِوٕ
3rd person
-[eːjoːʋ] ے یوو
-[eːjeːji] ے یے یہِ
-[eːjaːjɨ] ے یایہٕ
-[eːjaːjɨ] ے یایہٕ
Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:[91]
Indefinite past (intransitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
-[jas] یَس
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːjas] یے یَس
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
2nd person
-[jaːkʰ] یاکھ
-[jeːjiʋɨ] یے یِوٕ
-[jeːjakʰ] یے یَکھ
-[jeːjiʋɨ] یے یِوٕ
3rd person
-[joːʋ] یوو
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
Remote past (intransitive)
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
-[jeːjaːs] یے یاس
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːjaːs] یے یاس
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
2nd person
-[jeːjakʰ] یے یَکھ
-[jeːjiʋɨ] یے یِوٕ
-[jeːjakʰ] یے یَکھ
-[jeːjiʋɨ] یے یِوٕ
3rd person
-[jeːjoːʋ] یے یوو
-[jeːji] یے یہِ
-[jeːjaːjɨ] یے یایہٕ
-[jeːjɨ] یے یہٕ
Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:[92]
Future (intransitive)
Singular
Plural
1st person
-[mɨ] مہٕ
-[maʋ] مَو
2nd person
-[akʰ] اَکھ
-[jiʋ] یِو
3rd person
-[ji] یِہ
-[an] اَن
The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:[93]
There are two mainaspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ aparticiple formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /aːsun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).[94]
Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:[94]
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
-[mut̪] مُت
-[mɨt̪ʲ] مٕتؠ
-[mɨt͡s] مٕژ
-[mat͡sɨ] مَژٕ
The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/aːn/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement.[95] A type ofiterative aspect can be expressed byreduplicating the imperfective participle.[96]
Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.[97]
Nominative
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
[bɨ] بہٕ
[ǝsʲ] أسؠ
[bɨ] بہٕ
[ǝsʲ] أسؠ
2nd person
[t͡sɨ] ژٕ
[t̪ohʲ] or[t̪uhʲ] تۆہؠ orتُہؠ
[t͡sɨ] ژٕ
[t̪ohʲ] or[t̪uhʲ] تۆہؠ orتُہؠ
3rd person
proximate
[ji] یہِ
[jim] یِم
[ji] یہِ
[jimɨ] یِمہٕ
remote I
[hu] ہُہ
[hum] ہُم
[hɔ] ہۄ
[humɨ] ہُمہٕ
remote II
[su] سُہ
[t̪im] تِم
[sɔ] سۄ
[t̪imɨ] تِمہٕ
Ergative
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
[me] مےٚ
[asi] اَسہِ
[me] مےٚ
[asi] اَسہِ
2nd person
[t͡se] ژےٚ
[t̪ɔhi] تۄہِہ
[t͡se] ژےٚ
[t̪ɔhi] تۄہِہ
3rd person
proximate
[jemʲ] ییٚمؠ
[jimaʋ] یِمَو
[jemi] ییٚمِہ
[jimaʋ] یِمَو
remote I
[humʲ] ہُمؠ
[humaʋ] ہُمَو
[humi] ہُمہِ
[humaʋ] ہُمَو
remote II
[t̪ǝmʲ] تٔمؠ
[t̪imaʋ] تِمَو
[t̪ami] تَمہِ
[t̪imaʋ] تِمَو
Dative
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
[me] مےٚ
[asi] اَسہِ
[me] مےٚ
[asi] اَسہِ
2nd person
[t͡se] ژےٚ
[t̪ɔhi] تۄہہِ
[t͡se] ژےٚ
[t̪ɔhi] تۄہہِ
3rd person
proximate
[jemis] ییٚمِس
[jiman] یِمَن
[jemis] ییٚمِس
[jiman] یِمَن
remote I
[humis] ہُمِس
[human] ہُمَن
[humis] ہُمِس
[human] ہُمَن
remote II
[t̪ǝmis] تٔمِس
[t̪iman] تِمَن
[t̪ǝmis] تٔمِس
[t̪iman] تِمَن
Ablative
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
1st person
[me] مےٚ
[asi] اَسہِ
[me] مےٚ
[asi] اَسہِ
2nd person
[t͡se] ژےٚ
[t̪ɔhi] تۄہہِ
[t͡se] ژےٚ
[t̪ɔhi] تۄہہِ
3rd person
proximate
[jemi] ییٚمہِ
[jimaʋ] یِمَو
[jemi] ییٚمہِ
[jimaʋ] یِمَو
remote I
[humi] ہُمہِ
[humaʋ] ہُمَو
[humi] ہُمہِ
[humaʋ] ہُمَو
remote II
[t̪ǝmi] تٔمہِ
[t̪imaʋ] تِمَو
[t̪ǝmi] تٔمہِ
[t̪imaʋ] تِمَو
There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.[98]
There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all.[99] Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns.[100] The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjectiveوۄزُل[ʋɔzul] ("red"):[101][102]
Masculine
Feminine
singular
plural
singular
plural
Nom.
[ʋɔzul] وۄزُل
[ʋɔzɨlʲ] وۄزٕلؠ
[ʋɔzɨd͡ʒ] وۄزٕج
[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] وۄزجہِ
Erg.
[ʋɔzlɨ] وۄزلہٕ
[ʋɔzlʲaʋ] وۄزلؠو
[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] وۄزجہِ
[ʋɔzd͡ʒaʋ] وۄزجَو
Dat.
[ʋɔzlis] وۄزلِس
[ʋɔzlʲan] وۄزلؠن
[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] وۄزجہِ
[ʋɔzd͡ʒan] وۄزجَن
Abl.
[ʋɔzlɨ] وۄزلہٕ
[ʋɔzlʲaʋ] وۄزلؠو
[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] وۄزجہِ
[ʋɔzd͡ʒaʋ] وۄزجَو
Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -[lad̪] or -[ɨ], adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.[101]
The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the wordsژۆر[t͡sor] ("more") andسؠٹھا[sʲaʈʰaː] ("most"), respectively.[103]
Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated intocardinal numbers andordinal numbers.[104] These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.),multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.[104]
The ordinal number "1st" which is[ǝkʲum]أکیُٛم for its masculine gender and[ǝkim]أکِم for its feminine gender is also known as[ɡɔɖnʲuk]گۄڈنیُٛک and[ɡɔɖnit͡ʃ]گۄڈنِچ respectively.[105]
Kashmiri retains several features ofOld Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi.[42] Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from theVedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-formyodvai (meaningif), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the wordyadi instead.[42]
Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. TheIndo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit asaham and in Avestan Persian asazam. This contrasts with them- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such asma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced withm- in words such asma-n andmai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' isba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the otherme terms. 'Mine' ismyon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature includeDogri (aun vsme-),Gujarati (hu-n vsma-ri),Konkani (hā̃v vsmhazo), andBraj (hau-M vsmai-M). The IranianPashto preserves it too (za vs.maa), as well asNuristani languages, such asAskunu (âi vsiũ).[110]
There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims.[111] For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the wordاۆگُن[oɡun] while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic wordنار[naːr].[112]
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."
One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.
^At the beginning of a word it can either come with diacritic, or it can be stand-alone and silent, succeeded by a vowel letter. Diacritics اَ اِ، اُ can be omitted in writing. Other diacritics (i.e.آ، أ، ٲ، إ، اٟ) are never omitted. For example,اَخبار"akhbār" is often written asاخبار, whereasأچھ" ȧchh" is never written asاچھ.
^The letterwāw can either represent consonant ([ʋ]) or vowel ([oː]). It can also act as a carrier of vowel diacritics, representing several other vowelsوٗ, ۆ, ۄ (uː], [o], [ɔ]). At the beginning of a word, when representing a consonant, the letterwāw will appear as a standalone character, followed by the appropriate vowel. If representing a vowel at the beginning of a word, the letterwāw needs to be preceded by anạlif,او, اوٗ, اۆ, اۄ.
^This letter differs fromdo-chashmi hē (ھ) and they are not interchangeable. Similar to Urdu,do-chashmi hē (ھ) is exclusively used as a second part ofdigraphs for representingaspirated consonants.
^In initial and medial position, the letterhē always represents the consonant [h]. In final position, The letterhē can either represent consonant ([h]) or vowel ([a]). In final position, only in its attached form, and not in isolated form, it can also act as a carrier of vowel diacritics, representing several other vowelsـٔہ, ـہٕ ([ə], [ɨ]). For example, whereas a final "-rạ" is written asـرٔ, a final "-gạ" is written asـگٔہ.
^The letteryē can either represent consonant ("y" [j]) or vowel ("ē" [eː] or "ī" [iː]). The letteryē can represent [j] in initial or medial position, or it can represent "ē" [eː] or "ī" [iː] in medial positions, or "ī" [iː] in final position. In combination with specific diacritics, the letteryē in its medial position, can represent "ī" [iː], "e" [e], "ĕ" [ʲa], or ' [◌ʲ] as well. To represent the consonant "y" [j] or the vowel "ē" [eː] in final position, the letterboḍ yē (ے) is used. The letterboḍ yē (ے), in combination with specific diacritics, can represent "e" [e] in final position.
^The letterboḍ yē only occurs in final position. The letterboḍ yē represents the consonant "y" [j] or the vowel "ē" [eː]. With specific diacritics, vowel "e" [e] is also shown with the letterboḍ yē.
^abBukhari, Shujaat (14 June 2011)."The other Kashmir".The Hindu. Retrieved24 October 2020.
^"Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011"(PDF). Retrieved2 July 2018. The precise figures from the 2011 census are 6,554,36 for Kashmiri as a "mother tongue" and 6,797,587 for Kashmiri as a "language" (which includes closely related smaller dialects/languages).
^abcdeAkhtar, Raja Nasim; Rehman, Khawaja A. (2007). "The Languages of the Neelam Valley".Kashmir Journal of Language Research.10 (1):65–84.ISSN1028-6640.Additionally, Kashmiri speakers are better able to understand the variety of Srinagar than the one spoken in Muzaffarabad.
^Kaw, M. K. (2004).Kashmir and It's [sic] People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. APH Publishing. pp. 328–329.ISBN978-81-7648-537-1.In parts of Pakistan, as a Pakistani scholar, Rahman observes (1996:225-226), "there are pockets of Kashmiri-speaking people in Azad Kashmir [Pakistan-occupied Kashmir] and elsewhere ..." Rahman adds that the process of language shift is in progress among Kashmiri speakers in Pakistan too, as: most of them [Kashmiris] are gradually shifting to other languages such as the local Pahari and Mirpuri which are dialects of Punjabi...Most literate people use Urdu since, in both Azad and Indian-held Kashmir, Urdu rather than Kashmiri is the official language of government.
^"Up north: Call for exploration of archaeological sites".The Express Tribune. 4 June 2015. Retrieved24 October 2020.He said Kundal Shahi and Kashmiri languages, which were spoken in the Neelum Valley, were on the verge of dying.
^Khan, Zafar Ali (20 February 2016)."Lack of preservation causing regional languages to die a slow death".The Express Tribune. Retrieved25 October 2020.Dr Khawaja Abdul Rehman, who spoke on Pahari and Kashmiri, said pluralistic and tolerance-promoting Kashmiri literature was fast dying, as its older generation had failed to transfer the language to its youth. He said that after a few decades, not a single Kashmiri-speaking person will be found in Muzaffarabad...
^abcK.L. Kalla (1985),The Literary Heritage of Kashmir, Mittal Publications,... Kashmiri alone of all the modern Indian languages preserves the dvi (Kashmiri du) of Sanskrit, in numbers such as dusatath (Sanskrit dvisaptati), dunamat (Sanskrit dvanavatih) ... the latter (Yodvai) is archaic and is to be come across mainly in the Vedas ...
^"Sarada". Lawrence. Archived fromthe original on 24 February 2008. Retrieved2 June 2007.
^Zakharyin, Boris (2015). "Indo-Aryan Ergativity and its Analogues in Languages of Central and Western Eurasia",The Poznań Society for the Advancement of Arts and Sciences, PL ISSN 0079-4740, pp.66.
^Grierson, George Abraham (1911)."Kashmiri" . InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 689–693.Sanskrit has been actively studied for many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that, for convenience' sake, it is now frequently classed as belonging to the north-western group of languages, instead of as belonging to the Piśāca family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either classification is wrong.
^abGorekar, Niẓāmuddīn Es (2002).Indo-Islamic Relations. KnowledgeCity Books. p. 67.The Kashmiri language was in the beginning greatly influenced by the Sanskrit language, but with the coming of the Muslims and monarchs like Zainu'l-Abedin it began to accept the influence of Persian which was the language of the rulers.
^Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 6 April 2010. p. 582.ISBN978-0-08-087775-4.Kashmiri vocabulary can be broadly categorized into Kashmiri/Dardic, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Hindi/Urdu, Persian, and Arabic origins.
^Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie (6 April 2010),Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world, Elsevier, 2008,ISBN978-0-08-087774-7,... Kashmiri occupies a special position in the Dardic group, being probably the only dardic language that has a written literature dating back to the early 13th century ...
Chopra, R. M (2013). "Indo-Persian Literature in Kashmir".The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House.OCLC909254259.
Tickoo, Jawahir Lal (2006).Kashmiri-English Dictionary. Indian Institute of Language Studies.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 1. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 2. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 3. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 4. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 5. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 6. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan (1968–1980).Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 7. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
