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Kang Youwei | |||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Kang,c. 1905 | |||||||||||||||||||
| Born | (1858-03-19)19 March 1858 Nanhai, Guangdong, Qing China | ||||||||||||||||||
| Died | 31 March 1927(1927-03-31) (aged 69) Qingdao, Shandong, Republic of China | ||||||||||||||||||
| Education | Jinshi degree in theImperial Examination | ||||||||||||||||||
| Known for | Leader in theGongche Shangshu movement Leader in theHundred Days' Reform | ||||||||||||||||||
| Notable work | The Reformations ofEmperor Meiji (日本明治變政考),The Reformations ofPeter the Great (俄大彼得變政記) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Spouses |
| ||||||||||||||||||
| Children | 15 children, includingKang Tongbi | ||||||||||||||||||
| Relatives | Kang Youpu (brother) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 康有為 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 康有为 | ||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||
| Other names | |
| Courtesy name(zi) | |
|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 廣廈 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Guǎngsh๠|
| Yale Romanization | Gwóng-hah |
| Courtesy names(hao) | |
| Traditional Chinese | 長素 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Chángsù |
| Yale Romanization | Chèuhng-sou |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 明夷 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Míngyí |
| Yale Romanization | Mìhng-yìh |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 更生 or 更甡 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Gēngshēng |
| Yale Romanization | Gāng-sāng |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 西樵山人 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Xīqiáo Shānrén |
| Yale Romanization | Sāi-chīu Sāan-yàhn |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 游存叟 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Yóucúnsǒu |
| Yale Romanization | Yàuh-chyùhn-sáu |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 天游化人 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Tiānyóu Huàrén |
| Yale Romanization | Tīn-yàuh Fa-yàhn |
| ¹K'ang Yu-wei: A Biography and a Symposium gives Guǎngxià 廣夏 | |
Kang Youwei (19 March 1858 – 31 March 1927) was a Chinese political thinker and reformer in lateQing dynasty. His increasing closeness to and influence over the youngGuangxu Emperor sparked conflict between the emperor and his adoptive mother, the regentEmpress Dowager Cixi. His ideas were influential in the abortiveHundred Days' Reform. Following the coup by Cixi that ended the reform, Kang was forced to flee. He continued to advocate for a Chineseconstitutional monarchy after the founding of theRepublic of China.
Kang was born on 19 March 1858 in Su Village, Danzao Town,Nanhai County,Guangdong province (now the Nanhai District ofFoshan City). According to his autobiography, his intellectual gifts were recognized in his childhood by his uncle. As a result, from an early age, he was sent by his family to study theConfucian classics to pass theimperial examinations. However, as a teenager, he was dissatisfied with the scholastic system of his time, especially its emphasis on preparing for theeight-legged essays, which were artificial literary exercises required as part of the examinations.
Studying for exams was an extraordinarily rigorous activity so he engaged inBuddhist meditation as a form of relaxation, an unusual leisure activity for a Chinese scholar of his time. It was during one of these meditations that he had a mystical vision that became the theme for his intellectual pursuits throughout his life. Believing that it was possible to read every book and "become a sage", he embarked on a quasi-messianic pursuit to save humanity.[1]
Kang called for an end to property and the family in the interest of an idealized future cosmopolitan utopia and citedConfucius as an example of a reformer and not as areactionary, as many of his contemporaries did. In his workA Study of Confucius as a Reformer of Institutions, he discussed the latter point in great detail.[2]: 129 He argued, to bolster his claims, that therediscovered versions of the Confucian classics wereforged; he expounded this idea in detail inA Study of the Forged Classics of the Xin Period.
In 1879, Kang traveled toHong Kong and was shocked by the prosperity there, which started his interest in Western culture and thoughts. In 1882, Kang went to Beijing to take theimperial examination. While returning home, he stopped over inShanghai and bought many Western books there, and started developing his ideology based on these writings. He was influenced by Protestant Christianity in his quest for reform.[3][4][5][6]
In 1883, Kang founded theAnti-Footbinding Society near Canton.
Kang Youwei launched theQiangxue hui ("Society for the Study of National Strengthening") in Beijing. It was the first political group established by reformists in China. Through it, Kang became acquainted with Governor-GeneralZhang Zhidong and received his financial support to inaugurate theQiangxue bao ("Journal of the Society for the Study of the National Strengthening") in January 1896. In the same month, the society was dissolved and the journal had to cease publication.[7]
Kang was a strong believer inconstitutional monarchy[2]: 129 and wanted to remodel the country afterMeiji Japan. These ideas angered his colleagues in the scholarly class who regarded him as aheretic.
In 1895, China was defeated by Japan in theFirst Sino-Japanese War. In protest against theTreaty of Shimonoseki, Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and over 600 civil examination candidates signed a petition to theGuangxu Emperor, known to history as theGongche Shangshu movement. This movement is taken as the sign of the appearance of reformists and the start of Chinese mass political movements.[8]
Kang and his noted student,Liang Qichao, were important participants in a campaign to modernize China now known as theHundred Days' Reform.[9] The reforms introduced radical change into the Chinese government.Empress Dowager Cixi staged a coup that put an end to the reforms, put the Guangxu Emperor under house arrest, and ordered Kang's arrest and execution on the basis that he had tried to have her assassinated. Kang fled the country, but also organized theProtect the Emperor Society which promoted the cause of the Guangxu Emperor, mainly inChinese diaspora communities, and advocated the removal of Cixi. Kang relied on his principal American military advisor, GeneralHomer Lea, to head the military branch of the Protect the Emperor Society. Kang traveled throughout the world to promote his ideas. He competed with the revolutionary leaderSun Yat-sen'sRevive China Society andRevolutionary Alliance for funds and followers among overseas Chinese.
Kang visited India twice, first in 1901–1903 and then again in October 1909, in part to study India, which he regarded as comparable to China. Although his information about Indian history was derived from English authors, he observed that India's plight as a colonised country was due to the disunity among the different regions of India.[10]
TheXinhai Revolution led to the abdication of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of arepublic underSun Yat-sen in 1912. Kang opposed the creation of a republic.[11]: 129
Some advocated that a Han be installed as Emperor: either the currentDuke Yansheng (the recognized descendant of Confucius)[12][13][14][15] – which Kang briefly endorsed before dropping the idea and returning to the idea of a Qing monarch[16]; or theMarquis of Extended Grace (the recognized Ming dynasty descendant).[17][18]
Kang remained an advocate of constitutional monarchy and launched a failedcoup d'état in 1917. GeneralZhang Xun and hisqueue-wearing soldiers occupied Beijing,declaring a restoration of EmperorPuyi on July 1.
The incident was a major miscalculation. The nation was highlyanti-monarchist. Kang became suspicious of Zhang's insincere constitutionalism and feared he was merely using the restoration to become the power behind the throne. He abandoned his mission and fled to the American legation. On July 12,Duan Qirui easily occupied the city.
Kang's reputation serves as an important barometer for the political attitudes of his time. In the span of less than twenty years, he went from being regarded as an iconoclastic radical to an anachronistic pariah.
Chinese-British biographerJung Chang gave Kang Youwei unfavorable criticism due to his role in spreading numerous stories vilifying the Empress Dowager. These included accusations that Cixi murderedEmpress Dowager Ci'an, drove her own son (theTongzhi Emperor) to death, and misappropriated naval funds. Chang asserted that Kang Youwei was a "master propagandist" who also intended to become Emperor by posing as the reincarnation of Confucius, but later abandoned that plan.[19]
Kang's best-known and probably most controversial work isDatong Shu (大同書). The title of the book derives from the name of a society modeled on the period of "three dynasties"[20] as imagined by Confucius, but it literally means "The Book of Great Unity". The ideas of this book appeared in his lecture notes from 1884. Encouraged by his students, he worked on this book for the next two decades, but it was not until his exile inIndia that he finished the first draft. The first two chapters of the book were published in Japan in the 1900s, but the book was not published in its entirety until 1935, about seven years after his death.[21]
Kang drew a historical theory of world order which, projected into future, outlines world unification, and combined a future unified world with his utopian ideas. His historical theory points to a millennia-long trend towards ever-larger empires.
Finally, the present powers of the world were formed. This process [of coalescing and forming fewer, larger units] has all taken place among the 10,000 countries over several thousand years. The progression from dispersion to union among men, and the principle [whereby] the world is [gradually] proceeding from being partitioned off to being opened up, is a spontaneous [working] of the Way of Heaven (or Nature) and human affairs.[22]
Kang also made predictions about future trends towards world unification.
"The trend of imperial expansions will culminate with the contest between Germany and the United States."[23]
The author of a more famousOne World, the 1940 presidential candidate,Wendell Willkie, similarly stated that either Berlin will be capital of the world, or Washington.[24] Contrary to his Western contemporaries, commented Historian Max Ostrovsky, Kang belonged to a civilization which experienced millennia-long universal unity. He knew how it was unified and several times reunified. Naturally, his theory of the world unification is more sound than the abstract ideas of the “Federation of the world” by his Western contemporary colleagues.[25] Kang divided history on three basic periods — prehistory, history till the moment of unification which is still to come, and future period of One World — and designed a table on several pages of features corresponding to each period. His later German colleague,Karl Jaspers, independently designed three perfectly corresponding stages of history which he called prehistory, history and world or planetary history.[26]
The future unified world, in Kang's utopian design, would be democratically ruled by one central government. In his scheme, the world would be split into rectangular administrative districts, which would be self-governing under a direct democracy but loyal to a central world government. There would also be the dissolution of racial boundaries. Kang outlines an immensely ambitious, and equally inhumane,eugenics program that would eliminate the "brown and black" racial phenotype after a millennium and lead to the emergence of a fair-skinned homogeneous human race whose members would "be the same color, the same appearance, the same size, and the same intelligence."[27] Some of the methods envisioned for achieving this end included forced relocation to colder regions inhabited by whites coupled with sterilization of those suffering from diseases or whose mental and/or physical attributes were deemed exceptionally grotesque. One of the more humane tactics involved giving distinctive honors to white and yellow people who were willing to “improve humanity" by procreating with their brown and black counterparts. It is worth noting that although Kang felt that the white and yellow phenotype could coexist in his ideal scheme, he ultimately felt that white was nonetheless superior to yellow, and that the latter under ideal circumstances could be eliminated within the span of a century (prior to the advent of the "Great Unity").
Kang wrote that the traditional family structure should be abolished and that women and men should sign one year marriage contracts, thereby allowing for flexible and voluntary relationships.[28]: 95 His desire to end the traditional Chinese family structure defines him as an early advocate of women's independence in China.[29] He reasoned that the institution of the family practiced by society since the beginning of time was a great cause of strife.
The family would be replaced by state-run institutions, such as womb-teaching institutions, nurseries and schools. Marriage would be replaced by one-year contracts between a woman and a man.[30] Kang considered the contemporary form of marriage, in which a woman was trapped for a lifetime, to be too oppressive. Kang believed in equality between men and women and that there should be no social barrier barring women from doing whatever men can do.[citation needed]
Kang sawcapitalism as an inherently evil system. He believed that government should establishsocialist institutions to overlook the welfare of each individual. At one point, he even advocated that government should adopt the methods of "communism" although it is debated what Kang meant by this term.
In this spirit, in addition to establishing government nurseries and schools to replace the institution of the family, he also envisioned government-run retirement homes for the elderly. It is debated whether Kang's socialist ideas were inspired more by Western thought or by traditional Confucian ideals.
Laurence G. Thompsom believes that his socialism was based on traditional Chinese ideals. His work is permeated with the Confucian ideal ofren (仁), orhumanity. However, Thompson also noted a reference by Kang toFourier. Thus, some Chinese scholars believe that Kang's socialist ideals were influenced by Western intellectuals after his exile in 1898.
Notable in Kang'sDatong Shu were his enthusiasm for and his belief in bettering humanity through technology, unusual for a Confucian scholar during his time. He believed that Western technological progress had a central role in saving humanity. While many scholars of his time continued to maintain the belief that Western technology should be adopted only to defend China against the West, he seemed to whole-heartedly embrace the modern idea that technology is integral for advancing mankind. Before anything of modern scale had been built, he foresaw a global telegraphic and telephone network. He also believed that as a result of technological advances, each individual would only need to work three or four hours per day, a prediction that would be repeated by the most optimistic futurists later in the 20th century.
When the book was first published, it was received with mixed reactions. Kang's support for theGuangxu Emperor was seen as reactionary by many Chinese intellectuals, who believed that Kang's book was an elaborate joke and that he was merely acting as an apologist for the emperor as to how a utopian paradise could have developed if the Qing dynasty had been maintained. Others believe that Kang was a bold and daring protocommunist, who advocated modern Western socialism and communism. Amongst the latter wasMao Zedong, who admired Kang Youwei and his socialist ideals in theDatong Shu.
Modern Chinese scholars now often take the view that Kang was an important advocate of Chinese socialism. Despite the controversy,Datong Shu still remains popular. A Beijing publisher included it on the list of 100 most influential books in Chinese history.
Kang enumerated sources of human suffering in a way similar to that ofBuddhism.[31]
The sufferings associated with man's physical life are:being implanted in the womb, premature death, loss of a limb,being a barbarian, living outside China, being aslave, and being a woman. The sufferings associated withnatural disasters are:famine resulting fromflood ordrought,epidemic,conflagration, flood, volcanic eruptions, collapse of buildings,shipwreck, andlocust plagues. The sufferings associated with the human relationship are: being awidow, beingorphaned orchildless, being ill with no one to provide medical care, sufferingpoverty, and having a low and mean station in life. The sufferings associated with society are:corporal punishment andimprisonment,taxation,military conscription,social stratification, oppressive political institutions, the existence of the state, and the existence of the family. The human feelings which cause suffering are:stupidity,hatred,fatigue,lust, attachment to things, anddesire. The things that cause suffering because of the esteem in which they are held are:wealth, eminent position,longevity, being a ruler, and being a spiritual leader. He also visualised a hierarchy of various religions, in whichChristianity andIslam were considered the lowest, above them beingConfucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. He predicted that the lower religions would eventually disappear in the future.[32]
Kang was an accomplishedcalligrapher, responsible for the creation of Kang Typeface (Bad Model;破体). He commended tablet calligraphy and depreciated model calligraphy. In his early years, he learned fromOuyang Xun by imitation. In his workGuangyizhoushuangji (广艺舟双楫), he did comprehensive and systematic research and introduction about tablet calligraphy. In Kang’s later years, selling calligraphy became his most reliable source of income.[33][34][35]
After the failure of the Hundred Days’ Reform, Kang fled China. In 1898, he arrived in Japan via Hong Kong. Kang reachedSweden in 1904 and was deeply attracted to the landscape. He bought an islet offSaltsjöbaden and built a Chinese style garden and building named "Beihai Caotang" (Chinese: 北海草堂). This island is still known as Kang Youwei Island by many Chinese.[36][37]
Kang died at his home in the city ofQingdao,Shandong in 1927. He was 69.
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