Kami (Japanese:神;[kaꜜmi]) are thedeities,divinities,spirits, mythological, spiritual, or natural phenomena that are venerated in the traditionalShinto religion ofJapan.Kami can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, beings and the qualities that these beings express, and/or the spirits of venerated dead people. Manykami are considered the ancient ancestors of entireclans (some ancestors becamekami upon their death if they were able to embody the values andvirtues ofkami in life). Traditionally, great leaders like theEmperor could be or becamekami.[1]
In Shinto,kami are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, andgood and evil characteristics. They are manifestations ofmusubi (結び),[2] the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards.Kami are believed to be "hidden" from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own:shinkai (神界; "the world of the kami").[3]: 22 To be in harmony with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature is to be conscious ofkannagara no michi (随神の道 or 惟神の道; "the way of the kami").[2]
Kami is theJapanese word for a deity, divinity, or spirit.[4] It has been used to describemind, God, Supreme Being, one of the Shinto deities, aneffigy, aprinciple, and anything that is worshipped.[5][6]
Althoughdeity is the common interpretation ofkami, some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term.[7][page needed]
Some etymological suggestions are:
Kami may, at its root, simply meanspirit, or an aspect of spirituality. It is written with the kanji神, Sino-Japanese readingshin orjin. In Chinese, the character meansdeity orspirit.[8]
In theAinu language, the wordkamuy refers to ananimistic concept very similar to Japanesekami. The matter of the words' origins is still a subject of debate;John Batchelor derives the word from Ainu roots,[9] but Japanese sources indicate a Japonic origin.[10]
In terms of meaning, in hisKojiki-den,Motoori Norinaga gave a definition ofkami as: "any being whatsoever which possesses some eminent quality out of the ordinary, and is awe-inspiring, is called kami."[11]
Because Japanese does not normally distinguishgrammatical number innouns (most do not have singular and plural forms), it is sometimes unclear whetherkami refers to a single or multiple entities. When a singular concept is needed,-kami (神) is used as asuffix. Thereduplicated term generally used to refer to multiplekami iskamigami.[3]: 210–211
While Shinto has no founder, no overarching doctrine, and no religious texts, theKojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), written in 712 CE, and theNihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan), written in 720 CE, contain the earliest record of Japanese creation myths. TheKojiki also includes descriptions of variouskami.[3]: 39
In the ancient traditions there were five defining characteristics ofkami:[12]
Kami are of two minds. They can nurture and love when respected, or they can cause destruction and disharmony when disregarded.Kami must be appeased in order to gain their favor and avoid their wrath. Traditionally,kami possess twosouls, one gentle (nigi-mitama) and the other assertive (ara-mitama); additionally, inYamakage Shinto (seeKo-Shintō),kami have two additional souls that are hidden: one happy (saki-mitama) and one mysterious (kushi-mitama).[3]: 130
Kami are not visible to the human realm. Instead, they inhabit sacred places, natural phenomena, or people during rituals that ask for their blessing.
They are mobile, visiting their places of worship, of which there can be several, but never staying forever.
There are many different varieties ofkami. There are 300 different classifications ofkami listed in theKojiki, and they all have different functions, such as thekami of wind,kami of entryways, andkami of roads.
Lastly, allkami have a different guardianship or duty to the people around them. Just as the people have an obligation to keep thekami happy, thekami have to perform the specific function of the object, place, or idea they inhabit.
Kami are an ever-changing concept, but their presence in Japanese life has remained constant. Thekami's earliest roles were as earth-based spirits, assisting the earlyhunter-gatherer groups in their daily lives. They were worshipped as gods of the earth (mountains) and sea. As the cultivation ofrice became increasingly important and predominant in Japan, thekami's identity shifted to more sustaining roles that were directly involved in the growth of crops; roles such as rain, earth, and rice.[12] This relationship between early Japanese people and thekami was manifested in rituals and ceremonies meant to entreat thekami to grow and protect the harvest. These rituals also became a symbol of power and strength for the early Emperors.[13]
There is a strong tradition of myth-histories in the Shinto faith; one such myth details the appearance of the first emperor, grandson of the Sun GoddessAmaterasu. In this myth, when Amaterasu sent her grandson to earth to rule, she gave him five rice grains, which had been grown in the fields of heaven (Takamagahara). This rice made it possible for him to transform the "wilderness".[13]
Social and political strife have played a key role in the development of new sorts ofkami, specifically thegoryō-shin (the sacred spiritkami).Goryō are the vengeful spirits of the dead whose lives were cut short, but they were calmed by the devotion of Shinto followers and are now believed to punish those who do not honor thekami.[13]
The pantheon ofkami, like thekami themselves, is forever changing in definition and scope. As the needs of the people have shifted, so too have the domains and roles of the variouskami. Some examples of this are related to health, such as thekami ofsmallpox whose role was expanded to include all contagious diseases, or thekami of boils and growths who has also come to preside overcancers andcancer treatments.[13]
In 927 CE, theEngi-shiki (延喜式; literally, Procedures of theEngi Era) was promulgated in fifty volumes. This, the first formal codification of Shinto rites andnorito (liturgies and prayers) to survive, became the basis for all subsequent Shinto liturgical practice and efforts. It listed all of the 2,861Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrinedkami.[16] The number ofkami has grown and far exceeded this figure through the following generations as there are over 2,446,000 individualkami enshrined in Tokyo'sYasukuni Shrine alone.[17]
Kami are the central objects of worship in Shinto. The best English translation ofkami is 'spirits', but this is an over-simplification of a complex concept—kami can be elements of the landscape or forces of nature.[18]Kami are believed to have influence over the forces of nature and over the affairs of humans. The ancientanimistic spirituality of Japan was the beginning of modern Shinto, which became a formal spiritual institution later, in an effort to preserve the traditional beliefs from the encroachment of imported religious ideas. As a result, the nature of what can be calledkami is very general and encompasses many different concepts and phenomena.
Some of the objects or phenomena designated askami are qualities of growth, fertility, and production; natural phenomena likewind andthunder; natural objects like thesun,mountains,rivers,trees, androcks; someanimals; andancestral spirits. Included within the designation of ancestral spirits are spirits of the ancestors of theImperial House of Japan, but also ancestors of noble families, as well as the spirits of the ancestors of all people, which, when they died, were believed to be the guardians of their descendants.[3]: 150
There are other spirits designated askami as well. For example, the guardian spirits of the land, occupations, and skills; spirits of Japanese heroes; those of outstanding deeds or virtues; those who have contributed to civilization, culture, and human welfare; those who have died for the state or the community; and the pitiable deceased.[19] Not only spirits superior to humans can be consideredkami: spirits that are considered pitiable or weak have also been consideredkami in Shinto.
The concept ofkami has been changed and refined since ancient times, although anything considered to bekami by ancient people will still be consideredkami in modern Shinto. Even within modern Shinto, no clearly defined criteria exist for what should or should not be worshipped askami. The difference between modern Shinto and the ancient animistic religions is mainly a refinement of theconcept, rather than a difference in definitions.[20]
Although the ancient designations are still adhered to, in modern Shinto, many priests also considerkami to beanthropomorphic spirits with nobility and authority. One such example is the mythological figureAmaterasu-ōmikami, the sun goddess of the Shinto pantheon. Althoughkami can be considered deities, they are not necessarily consideredomnipotent oromniscient; like the ancientGreek gods,kami have flawed personalities and are incapable of ignoble acts. In the myths of Amaterasu, for example, she could see the events of the human world, but had to use divination rituals to see the future.[citation needed]
There are considered to be three main variations ofkami:Amatsukami (天津神; the heavenly deities),Kunitsukami (国津神; the gods of the earthly realm), andya-o-yorozu no kami (八百万の神; countless kami). "八百万" literally means eight million, but idiomatically it expresses "uncountably many" and "all-around"—like many East Asian cultures, the Japanese often use the number 8, representing the cardinal and ordinal directions, to symbolize ubiquity. These classifications ofkami are not considered strictly divided, due to the fluid and shifting nature ofkami, but are instead held as guidelines for grouping them.[3]: 56
The ancestors of one's family can also be worshipped askami. In this sense, thesekami are worshipped not because of their godly powers, but because of a distinctive quality or virtue. An example of this isTenjin, who wasSugawara no Michizane (845–903 CE) in life. Thesekami are celebrated regionally, and miniature shrines[example needed] (hokora) have been built in their honor.
Within Shinto, it is believed that the nature of life is sacred because thekami began human life. Yet humans cannot perceive the sacredness thekami created without assistance. Therefore,magokoro (真心), or purification, is necessary to see the divine nature.[21][unreliable source] This purification can only be granted by thekami. To please thekami and earnmagokoro, Shinto followers are taught to uphold the four affirmations of Shinto.
The first affirmation is to hold fast to tradition and one's family line. Family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. For instance, a given tradition may be observed and passed on to future generations at marriage or birth. The second affirmation is to have a love of nature. Nature objects are worshipped as sacred because thekami inhabit them. Therefore, to be in contact with nature means to be in contact with the gods. The third affirmation is to maintain physical cleanliness. Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouths often. The last affirmation is to practicematsuri, which is the worship and honor given to thekami and ancestral spirits.[21][better source needed]
Shinto followers also believe that thekami are the ones who can either grant blessings or curses to a person. Shinto believers desire to appease the evilkami to "stay on their good side" and please the goodkami. In addition to practicing the four affirmations daily, Shinto believers also wearomamori to aid them in remaining pure and protected. Mamori are charms that keep the evilkami from striking a human with sickness or causing disaster to befall them.[21][better source needed]
Thekami are both worshipped and respected within the religion of Shinto. The goal of life to Shinto believers is to obtainmagokoro, a pure sincere heart, which can only be granted by thekami.[22] As a result, Shinto followers are taught that humankind should venerate both the living and the nonliving, because both possess a divine superior spirit within: thekami.[23][page needed]
"Amatsukami" is a generic term for the gods inTakamagahara, or those who descended fromTenson kōrin, while "Kunitsukami" is a generic term for the gods who appeared on the earth (Ashihara no Nakatsukuni).[25]
In Japanese mythology, the acceptance of the transfer of the land (Ashihara no Nakatsukuni) by the Kunitsukami to the Amatsu deities led byNinigi-no-Mikoto is described askuni-yuzuri. It is thought that the deity worshipped by the people of the region pacified[when?] by theYamato Kingship (i.e., theEmishi,Hayato, etc.) became the Kunitsukami; the deities worshipped by theimperial family and powerful clans of the Yamato Kingship became the Amatsukami.[24] Many of the original traditions of the Kunitsukami were altered when they were incorporated into theNihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan); many did not survive.[26] The Chronicles of Japan give some references to earlier traditions (e.g., "Ichi Sho Saying" and "Aru Hon Yun" in most volumes of theNihon Shoki), but the original recorded documents have been lost.[26]
Tsu is a case particle inOld Japanese, meaning "god of heaven" or "god of the country" in modern Japanese.[27] Sometimes written "Amatsugami" or "Kunitsugami.[28][further explanation needed]
Amatsukami are also called Tenjin, and Kunitsukami are called Chigi (地祇).[29] Some people believe that the names "Tenjin Chigi (天神地祇)" and "Jingi (神祇)" are derived from the Chinese classics. A different theory that the concept is completely different and different from the Japanese one has been presented.[24]
Another similar concept is Tenchi Shinmei (天地神明).[30]
天地神明 (Tenchi-Shinmei) is a Japanese four-character idiom that refers to the gods of heaven and earth. It is used in expressions such as "I swear by the gods of heaven and earth" and conveys a sense of reverence and commitment.[30] The origins of the term can be traced back to ancient Chinese classical texts, where the expression "天地" (Tenchi) and "神明" (Shinmei) were often used together to refer to the gods of heaven and earth, or to the gods and the universe as a whole. However, there are also instances where the expression was used to refer specifically to the gods of heaven and earth.[30] In Japan, the term天地神明 has been in use for centuries and is often associated with the image of the numerous gods and deities that have been worshipped in Japanese folklore and mythology.[30]
Susanoo-no-Mikoto, who was cast out of Takamagahara, and his descendants, such asŌkuninushi, are considered to be Kunitsukami.
Ogasawara Shozo [ja] proposed a system justifyingJapanese Imperialism wherein Japanese people in the colonies were seen asAmatsukami and natives were seen asKunitsukami.[31] However, he was later censored, as his position was considered too supportive of the rights of colonized peoples.[31]
One of the first recorded rituals isNiiname-sai (新嘗祭),[13] the ceremony in which theemperor of Japan offers newly harvested rice to thekami to secure their blessing for a bountiful harvest. A yearly festival, Niiname-sai, is also performed when a new emperorcomes to power, in which case it is called Daijō-sai (大嘗祭). In the ceremony, the emperor offers crops from the new harvest to thekami, including rice, fish, fruits, soup, and stew. The emperor first feasts with the deities, then the guests. The feast could go on for some time; for example,Emperor Shōwa's feast spanned two days.[13]
Visitors to aShinto shrine follow a purification ritual before presenting themselves to thekami. This ritual begins with hand washing and swallowing and later spitting a small amount of water in front of the shrine to purify the body, heart, and mind. Once this is complete, they focus on gaining thekami's attention. The traditional method of doing this is to bow twice, clap twice, and bow again, alerting thekami to their presence and desire to commune with them. During the last bow, the supplicant offers words of gratitude and praise to thekami; if they are offering a prayer for aid, they will also state their name and address. After the prayer and/or worship, they repeat the two bows, two claps, and a final bow in conclusion.[3]: 197
Shinto practitioners also worship at home. This is done at akamidana (household shrine), on which anofuda with the name of their protector or ancestralkami is positioned. Their protectorkami is determined by their or their ancestors' relationship to thekami.[3]: 28, 84
Ascetic practices, shrine rituals and ceremonies, andJapanese festivals are the most public ways Shinto devotees celebrate and offer adoration for thekami.Kami are celebrated during their distinct festivals that usually take place at the shrines dedicated to their worship. Many festivals involve believers, who are oftentimes intoxicated, parading, sometimes running, toward the shrine while carryingmikoshi (portable shrines) as the community gathers for the festival ceremony. Yamamoto Guji, the high priest at theTsubaki Grand Shrine, explains that this practice honors thekami because "it is in the festival, the matsuri, the greatest celebration of life can be seen in the world of Shinto and it is the people of the community who attend festivals as groups, as a whole village who are seeking to unlock the human potential as children of kami".[2] During the New Year Festival, families purify and clean their houses in preparation for the upcoming year. Offerings are also made to the ancestors so that they will bless the family in the future year.[citation needed]
Shinto ceremonies are so long and complex that in some shrines, it can take ten years for the priests to learn them.[32] The priesthood was traditionally hereditary. Some shrines have drawn their priests from the same families for over a hundred generations.[33] It is not uncommon for the clergy to be female priestesses.[33] The priests (kannushi) may be assisted bymiko, young unmarried women acting as shrine maidens.[34] Neither priests nor priestesses live as ascetics; in fact, it is common for them to be married,[33] and they are not traditionally expected to meditate. Rather, they are considered specialists in the art of maintaining the connection between thekami and the people.[33]
In addition to these festivals, ceremonies marking rites of passage are also performed within the shrines. Two such ceremonies are the birth of a child and the Shichi-Go-San. When a child is born, they are brought to a shrine so that they can be initiated as a new believer and thekami can bless them and their future life. The Shichi-Go-San (the Seven-Five-Three) is a rite of passage for five-year-old boys and three- or seven-year-old girls. It is a time for these young children to personally offer thanks for thekami's protection and to pray for continued health.[35][unreliable source]
Shinto believers practice many other rites of passage, and there are also many other festivals. The main reason for these ceremonies is so that Shinto followers can appease thekami in order to reachmagokoro.[22]: 205 Magokoro can only be received through thekami. Ceremonies and festivals are long and complex because they need to be perfect to satisfy thekami. If thekami are not pleased with these ceremonies, they will not grant a Shinto believermagokoro.
^Ono, Motonori; Woodard, William P. (1962).Shinto: the Kami Way. Tokyo: Rutland, Vt: C.E. Tuttle Co. p. 23.ISBN0-8048-3557-8.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
