 | |
| Also known as | Kalari, Kalarippayattu, Kalari Payat[1] |
|---|---|
| Focus | Hybrid |
| Hardness | Full-contact,semi-contact |
| Country of origin | India |
| Creator | Parashurama (as per legend)[note 1] |
| Famous practitioners | Notable Kalaripayattu practitioners |
| Olympic sport | No |
| Meaning | "Practice in the arts of the battlefield" |
Kalaripayattu (Malayalam:[kɐɭɐɾipːɐjɐtːɨ̆]), also known simply asKalari, is anIndian martial art that originated on the southwestern coast of India, in what is nowKerala, during the 3rd century BCE.[2][3][4]
Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of combat techniques of the 11th–12th century battlefield, with weapons and combative techniques that are unique to Kerala. The wordKalaripayattu is a combination of twoMalayalam words –kalari (training ground orbattleground) andpayattu (training of martial arts), which is roughly translated as "practice in the arts of the battlefield".Kalari may also be derived from theMalayalam orSanskrit termKhaloorika, which is the name of a goddess associated withShaktism who is worshipped in Kalaripayattu.[5][6][7][8]
TheKamika Agama, a 5th century CESouth Indian ancient text onShaiva Siddhanta, discusses the construction of theKhaloorika, as place for military exercise.[9][10]
According to legend,Parashurama, the sixthavatar ofVishnu, learned the art fromShiva, and taught it to the original settlers of Kerala shortly after bringing Kerala up from the ocean floor.[note 1] A song in Malayalam refers to Parashurama's creation ofKerala, and credits him with the establishment of the first 108 kalaris throughout Kerala, along with the instruction of the first 21 Kalaripayattu gurus in Kerala on the destruction of enemies.[11]
According to another legend,Ayyappa, a war deity from Kerala, learned Kalaripayattu in theCheerappanchira Kalari inMuhamma.[12]
According to Philip Zarrilli, theDravidian combat techniques of theSangam period (600 BCE – 300 CE) and SanskriticDhanur Vedic traditions were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu.[13] Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training[14] in target practice, horse and elephant riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear (vel), sword (val), shield (kedaham), and bow and arrow (vil ambu).
According to Zarrilli, Kalaripayattu has been practiced "since at least the twelfth century" CE.[13] During the 11th century, the secondChera kingdom fought a century-long war with theChola kingdom, which ended with disintegration of theChera kingdom. During this period, military combat training was compulsory, and according toElamkulam Kunjan Pillai, Kalaripayattu took shape in this period.[13] According to historianA. Sreedharan Menon, Kalaripayattu was among the most important aspects of feudalKeralite society, as it helped impart military training andSpartan-like discipline amongst the youth ofKerala, irrespective of caste, community or sex.[15]
Each village in late medieval Kerala had its ownkalari, which contained a presiding deity known asBhagavathy orParadevata. Children in Kerala who finished their education in local schools would join their localkalari to receive further military training.[15][16][17] This was especially common amongst martial sects of various communities in Kerala, such as theNairs andThiyyars.[15][16][17] The local legendary poems of Kerala, popularly known asVadakkan Pattu, have been passed down through oral tradition and describe the deeds of warriors, indicating the practice of Kalarippayattu. These ballads, dating back as early as the 12th century, depict a social system in which every youth was required to undergo martial training.[18][7]
In the late medieval period Kalaripayattu extended into theKerala practice ofankam ("combat" or "battle" inMalayalam) as a way to settle disputes that could not be settled by local governmental assemblies. A variant ofankam, calledpoithu was also practiced, and was a duel between two individuals. Combatants participating inankam orpoithu used Kalaripayattu, and the combatants were given up to 12 years to prepare and train prior to theankam itself, so that all combatants could achieve the highest level of proficiency with Kalaripayattu traditional weaponry.[19] In some cases, professional mercenaries trained in Kalaripayattu were paid to engage inankam on the behalf of others.[20]
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet underVasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[21] The next to arrivewere the Dutch, with their main base inCeylon. They established ports inMalabar.[22] Following the Dutch, theBritish—who set up in the west coast port ofSurat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India.
Duarte Barbosa, aPortuguese explorer who visited Kerala in the 16th century, noted that the physical exercise complexes of theNairs andThiyyars created a network of martial culture in Malabar,[16][17] and wrote about Nair military training in Kalaripayattu:[15][23]
The more part of Nayars (Nairs), when they are seven years of age, are sent to schools, where they are taught many tricks of nimbleness and dexterity; there they teach them to dance and turn about and to twist on the ground, to take royal leaps and other leaps and this they learn twice a day as long as they are children and they become so loose jointed and supple and they make them turn their bodies contrary to nature; and when they are fully accomplished in this, they teach them to play with the weapon they are most inclined, some play with bows and arrows, some with poles to become spearmen, but most with swords and are ever practising. The Nayars (Nairs) are bound, however old they may be, to always go (for training) in the winter (the rainy season or monsoon season) to take their fencing lessons until they die.[15]
Hendrik van Rheede, governor ofDutch Malabar between 1669 and 1676, wrote aboutChekavar (Malabar Thiyyar) training in Kalaripayattu inHortus Malabaricus:
Chekavas (Chekavar) are bound to war and arms. TheChekavars usually serve to teach Nayros (Nair) in the fencing inkalari school.[24]
Jacob Canter Visscher (1692–1735), in hisLetters from Malabar, wrote about theChekavars:
They may be justly entitled soldiers, as by virtue of their descent they must always bear arms. In spite of the fact that Chekavar were also practitioners of payatt (Kalaripayattu) and had a unavoidable presence in the militia of the ruler, they were allowed in the military services.[25]
The widespread practice and prevalence of Kalaripayattu in Kerala began to decline in the 17th century, when the usage of guns and cannons became widespread. This also coincided with theEuropean invasions into Kerala, after which, firearms began to surpass the usage of traditional weaponry such as swords and spears.[1][26]
The late medieval "golden age" of Kalaripayattu is preserved in theVadakkan Pattukal (17th–18th century[27]), a collection of ballads about warrior heroes and heroines from earlier periods in Kerala, such asAromal Chekavar (16th century),Unniyarcha (16th century),[28] and Thacholi Othenan, who were celebrated for their martial prowess, chivalry and idealism.[29] The heroes and heroines belong mainly to two matrilinear families, one ofTiyya origin and anotherNair.[27] In the Vadakkan Pattukal, it is stated that the cardinal principle of Kalaripayattu was that knowledge of the art be used to further worthy causes, and not for the advancement of one's own selfish interests.[citation needed]
In 1804, the British banned Kalaripayattu inKerala in response to theKottayathu War, a rebellion against British rule in Kerala led by the Keralite kingPazhassi Raja. The ban came into effect shortly after Pazhassi Raja's death on November 30, 1805, resulting in the closure of most of the majorkalari training grounds in Kerala. Following the ban, many Keralitegurukkals of Kalaripayattu resisted the ban and continued to teach Kalaripayattu to their students in secret.Gurukkals such asKottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal, Kelu Kurup Gurukkal and Maroli Ramunni Gurukkal, learned and preserved the martial art for posterity and were responsible for preserving Kalaripayattu into the beginning of the twentieth century, as well as sparking the revival of Kalaripayattu in Kerala in the 1920s.[2][30]
The resurgence of public interest in Kalaripayattu began in the 1920s inThalassery, as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughoutsouthern India[31] and continued through the 1970s surge of general worldwide interest in martial arts.
During this period of renewed public interest in Kerala's native martial art, Kalaripayattugurukkals such as Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal, Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, a student ofKottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal, and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris are named, opened severalkalaris, and began to spread Kalaripayattu across its native state of Kerala, revitalizing the art across the state in the twentieth century.[30]
Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair is also widely credited for reviving and preserving Kalaripayattu[30] by writing the first books ever written on Kalaripayattu, as well as writing the first authoritative text on the martial art. Sreedharan Nair is credited with writingKalaripayattu, the first book ever written on Kalaripayattu, in 1937. This book was written inMalayalam, and listed thevaithari or oral commands, of all the exercises relating tomeypayattu, or conditioning techniques.[2] He is also credited with writing the first authoritative text andprimer on Kalaripayattu, calledKalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art. The text, alongside a compilation of Sreedharan Nair's teaching notes, were translated into English by his sons S. R. A. Das and S. R. D. Prasad and then published byWestland Books. The book contains over 1,700 action photographs as well as explanations behind all of the exercises. It continues to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day.[2]
In the modern era, Kalaripayattu is also used by practitioners of Keralite dance styles, such asKathakali andMohiniyattam, as part of their training regimens.[28] Recently, dancers from other, non-Keralite dance forms have also begun to incorporate Kalaripayattu into their training regimes, such asVasundhara Doraswamy, a notableBharatanatyam dancer.[32]
In 2017, a 73-year-oldgurukkal fromVadakara,Sri Meenakshi Amma, was awarded thePadma Sri by theGovernment of India for her contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu.[33][34]
In January 2021, theGovernment of Kerala announced the opening of the Kalaripayattu Academy inKerala's capital,Thiruvananthapuram, under the management of theKerala Department of Tourism.[35][36][37] The Kalaripayattu Academy will comprise an area of 3,500 feet, and will be part of the Vellar Crafts Village. The Kalaripayattu classes will be taught by a group ofgurukkals from Kerala, led bySri Meenakshi Amma, a Kalaripayattugurukkal and Padma Sri recipient. The Kalaripayattu Academy will initially teach 100 students, both adults and children, in both morning and evening classes.Chief MinisterPinarayi Vijayan is set to announce the syllabus of the academy in 2021.[35][36][37]
Kalaripayattu is taught in accordance with the Indianguru-shishya system.[38] Development and mastery of Kalaripayattu comes from the tradition of constantly learning, adapting and improving the techniques by observing what techniques are practical and effective. While importance is placed on observation of tradition, Kalaripayattugurukkuls have contributed to the evolution of Kalaripayattu by way of their experience and reasoning.[39][self-published source?]
Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry, and healing methods.[31] Warriors trained in Kalaripayattu would use very light, and basic body armour, as it was difficult to maintain flexibility and mobility while in heavy armour. Kalaripayattu differs from many other martial arts systems in the world in that weapon-based techniques are taught first, and barehanded techniques are taught last.[38][40] The weapons used includegadas, spears, daggers, andurumis.[23]
Kalaripayattu is taught in a specialized training ground known as akalari. The location and construction of eachkalari is built in accordance toHindu architectural treatises such as theVastu Shastras[42][self-published source?] along with various religious traditions and customs native toKerala. Specifications are made regarding the physical dimensions of thekalari, how deep the ground in akalari must be, along with the material that the floor of thekalari must consist of.
The floor of eachkalari consists of red sand which is mixed with specific herbs that are said to aid in the treatment of small wounds suffered during training. The directional aspects ofkalari construction are also specified, such as the entrance of thekalari facing east, and the location of ritualistic structures such as thePoothara,Ganapatithara, andGuruthara, are to face the west. ThePoothara ("Flower ground" or "Flower floor" inMalayalam) in a kalari is a seven-step raised platform with a lotus-shapedkumbha or figure, at its apex. The art uses concepts similar to the ancient Indian medical text, theAyurveda,[13] and the seven steps represent the sevendhatu and thekosha of the human body as perAyurvedic traditions. Thekumbha at the apex of the poothara is said to representBhagavathy or the heart of the individual. The Ganapatithara ("Ground ofGanapati" in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for the worship of Ganapati, aHindu deity that is said to be the remover of obstacles. The Guruthara ("Ground of theGuru" in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for worship of the Guru of thekalari, who represents the tradition of gurukkals in Kerala who protected and taught Kalaripayattu to the next generation. In the Ganapatithara, Ganapati is symbolically invoked by the placing of anotta, or tusk-shaped wooden stick. Thepaduka, or footwear, is placed at the Guruthara to symbolize the life of a gurukkal.[42] The presiding deity of Kalaripayattu is said to beBhadrakali orBhagavathy.[43][44]
Before every training session in the kalari, salutations are provided to the presiding deities and obedience is paid to the kalari temple. Students applytilak or tikka on their foreheads and upon the forehead of the idol of the presiding deity using soil from the ground of the kalari.[38]
The traditional training uniform used in Kalaripayattu is thekachakettal, a loincloth that is either red and white or red and black in colour.[45] Along with traditional attire, oral commands, orvaithari, are given by the guru during training sessions, and are given in Sanskrit or Malayalam.[28]
A number ofSouth Asian fighting styles remain closely connected toyoga, dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in Kalaripayattu can be applied to dance[31][page needed] andKathakali dancers who knew Kalaripayattu were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen.[46]
Kalaripayattu techniques are a combination of steps (Chuvadu) and postures (Vadivu).[47]Chuvadu literally means 'steps', the basic steps of the martial arts.Vadivu literally means 'postures' or stances which are the foundations of Kalaripayattu training. They are named after animals, and are usually presented in eight forms. Styles differ considerably from one tradition to another. Not only do the names of poses differ, but their utilization and interpretation vary depending on thegurukkal, and the traditions of thekalari. Each stance has its own style, combination, and function. These techniques vary from one style to another.[31]
A Kalari practitioner might encounter new fighting techniques from an enemy combatant. The Kalari practitioner would need to learn how to anticipate, adapt to and neutralize these new techniques. This is especially seen in the Southern style of Kalaripayattu, which is believed to have been adapted and modified during wars withTamil kingdoms to counter martial arts likeSilambam, which was one of the main martial art forms practiced by Tamil soldiers at the time.
As a result of learning about the human body, Indian martial artists became knowledgeable in the fields of traditional medicine and massage. Kalaripayattu teachers often provide massages (uzhichil) with medicinal oils to their students in order to increase their physical flexibility or to treat muscular injuries. Such massages are generally termedthirumal and the unique massage given to increase flexibility is known askatcha thirumal.[7]
Each style, orvazhi, in Kalaripayattu has a different purpose.[note 2] The styles are variations that various masters have adapted and modified according to their understanding of the art.
There are two major styles that are generally acknowledged within traditional Kalaripayattu, and are based on the regions in which they are practiced, the Northern style, orVadakkan Kalari, and the Southern style, orThekkan Kalari.[49][50][51] These two systems have marked similarities in their styles orvazhi ("way" or "method" in Malayalam), such asHanuman Vazhi,Bhiman Vazhi, andBali Vazhi among others.[48][self-published source?] The northern style of Kalaripayattu, orVadakkan Kalari, is primarily practiced in theMalabar region ofKerala, and is based on elegant and flexible movements, evasions, jumps and weapons training. The southern style of Kalaripayattu, orThekkan Kalari, is primarily practiced in the southern regions of Kerala, and specializes in hard, impact based techniques with emphasis on hand-to-hand combat and pressure point strikes.[52] Both systems make use of internal and external concepts.
A third style, the Central style, orMadhya Kalari, is also practiced, but it is less commonly practiced than its northern and southern counterparts.[53][54][self-published source?][55][self-published source?] A smaller, regional style of Kalaripayattu calledTulunadan Kalari, is referenced in texts such as theVadakkan Pattukal, but it is largely restricted to theTulu Nadu region in northern Kerala and southern Karnataka. Other smaller, regional styles are also said to exist in isolated regions of Kerala, but these styles are becoming increasingly rare, and difficult to find. Examples includeDronamballi,Odimurassery,Tulu Nadan Shaiva Mura, andKayyangali.[56][57]
The Northern style is also known asVadakkan Kalari, and is generally regarded as the "original" form of Kalaripayattu. This system places more emphasis on physical flexibility exercises[58] rooted on the sloganMeyy kannavanam, meaning "make the body an eye". These exercises are done individually, as well as in combinations. After thatmeypayattu (a concept similar tokata in Karate) is taught. These are a combination of flexibility exercises with offensive and defensive techniques, however, the actual techniques are taught very much later. Traditionally, the number ofmeypayattu may differ as per the teaching methods of the guru. Training is usually done in four stages, the first stage beingMeipayattu (training stances), followed byKolthari (practice with wooden weapons),Angathari (practice with metal weapons) and finallyVerum kai (barehanded combat).[59] Generally, the majority of theKalaris (schools that teach Kalaripayattu) start training with weapons within 3 to 6 months. Some Kalaris only allow one weapon to be learned per year. After long stick and small stick fighting, iron weapons are introduced. Weapons training begins with the dagger and sword, followed by the spear. Not all modern schools use specialized weapons. Traditionally, bows and arrows were commonly used in Kerala and students were trained in these techniques, but is rarely taught today.[60]
The Southern style is also known asThekkan Kalari. Traditionally, it is believed to be a style of Kalaripayattu that is said to have been altered and influenced byAgastya. It is an essentially the northern style of Kalaripayattu that has been influenced by martial arts from neighboring regions, such asVarma Adi orAdi Murai. While the Southern form of Kalaripayattu has notable similarities to Varma Adi, it is considered to be a distinct and separate martial art from Varma Adi due to its similarities to Northern Kalaripayattu. The similarities between the southern form of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi are likely due to geographic proximity to each other, with the Southern style of Kalaripayattu being considered a mixture of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi.[61] While the Southern style is less commonly practiced in Kerala compared to the Northern style, it is revered in Kerala as a combination of the teachings of both Parashurama and Agastya. It is predominantly practiced in some regions of the southern parts of Kerala, particularly in areas nearKanyakumari.[citation needed] While many of the exercises of the Southern style are identical to the Northern Style, it is more combative and martial in nature, and places heavy emphasis on hand-to-hand combat, hard impact techniques, and footwork, rather than emphasizing flexibility like the Northern style.[62] It starts with the training inChuvadu, a system of various combinations of fighting techniques similar toMuay Thai andJudo.[5] Immediately after that, sparring with a partner is introduced as part of the training. These pre-determined techniques are repeatedly trained. After a basic proficiency in unarmed combat is established, weapons training begins with a small stick. Small stick training is usually done with two combatants, armed with a stick or dagger. These are primarily defensive techniques. Fighting techniques with two combatants having the same weapons include sparring with long stick, sword, etc. During the duration of this training, the refining of un-armed combat also progresses. As the student gains more experience, a small amount of knowledge pertaining to theMarma points (pressure points) is also taught to the student if deemed appropriate by thegurukkal.[63]
It is claimed that experienced Kalari warriors could disable or kill their opponents by merely striking the correctmarmam (vital point) on their opponent's body. This technique is taught only to the most promising and level-headed students so as to discourage misuse of the technique.Marmashastram stresses on the knowledge of marmam and is also used for marma treatment (marmachikitsa).[64] This system of marma treatment originated fromAyurveda, as well asSiddha medicine. Critics of Kalaripayattu have pointed out that the application of marmam techniques against neutral outsiders has not always produced verifiable results.[citation needed]
The earliest mention of marmam is found in theRig Veda, whereIndra is said to have defeatedVritra by attacking hismarmam with avajra. References to marmam are also found in theAtharva Veda.[65] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial artists knew about and practiced attacking or defending vital points.[13]Sushruta (c. 6th century BCE) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in hisSushruta Samhita.[66] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[67] Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical disciplineAyurveda, which was taught alongside variousIndian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such asVarma kalai and Marma adi.
In India, the Indian Kalaripayattu Federation (IKF) inThiruvananthapuram is one of the primary governing bodies of Kalaripayattu. It is recognized by theMinistry of Youth Affairs and Sports of theGovernment of India. It received affiliation as a regional sports federation in 2015.[68]
The Kalaripayattu Federation of India (KFI), based inKozhikode, is another governing body of Kalaripayattu, as has been recognized by theIndian Olympic Association.[69]
The Kerala Kalaripayattu Association (KKA) in Thiruvananthapuram is also a governing body of the martial art which is recognised by the Kerala State Sports Council.[70]
Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal (1850–1935), also known as the "Dronacharya of Kalaripayattu", was agurukkal of Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Korrakkal Kanaran Gurukkal is recognized as one of thegurukkals who preserved Kalaripayattu inKerala and allowed it to survive into the twentieth century after studying it from several gurukkals in theMalabar region of the state. During the British ban of Kalaripayattu, he is said to have sold his lands and property to finance the study of Kalaripayattu.[30][2]
Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair (1905–1944), a Kalaripayattugurukkal and student of Kottakal Kanaran Gurukkal, who was popularly known as "CVN" and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris sprang up acrossKerala, enabling the revival of Kalaripayattu across its native state.[30]
Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair (1909–1984), a Kalaripayattugurukkal, and founder of Sree Bharat Kalari (formerly known as Rajkumar Kalari). He is known for writing the first books on Kalaripayattu. His first work,Kalaripayattu, written in Malayalam and published in 1937, was the first book written on Kalaripayattu.[2] He also authored first authoritative text andprimer on Kalaripayattu, calledKalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art. The text is considered to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day.[2]
For their contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu,Meenakshi Amma,[33][34] a 73 year oldgurukkal fromVadakara andSankara Narayana Menon Chundayil,[71] agurukkal fromChavakkad, were awarded thePadma Sri by theGovernment of India.
In the Indiangraphic novelsOdayan andOdayan II – Yuddham, the title character is a vigilante who is highly skilled in Kalaripayattu, with the story itself being set in 16th century feudalKerala.[72]
Little Kalari Warriors, a cartoon made by Toonz Animation India forCartoon Network, features Kalaripayattu practitioners as the principal characters. Kalaripayattu is also seen in the Indian animated filmArjun: The Warrior Prince (2012). In the Indianrole-playing gameAshwathama – The Immortal, which is based onIndian mythology, the fight scenes were choreographed using Kalaripayattu, with the movements of the characters beingmotion captured from real Kalaripayattu masters.
Kalaripayattu is used as a fighting style for the characterConnie Maheswaran in the American animated television seriesSteven Universe. Outside of Indian video games, characters in international games also use Kalaripayattu, such asVoldo in theSoulcalibur series, Asura inDeath Battle, andZafina in theTekken series among others. The style is also used by Cyril Rahman, Ethan Stanley and Shō Kanō in the Japanesemanga TV seriesKenichi: The Mightiest Disciple.[73] In 2019, a character of Indian origin was introduced for the first time in the Japanesemanga,Agari. It features a character named Ravi, a Kalaripayattu master, as the protagonist.[74]
While numerous documentaries have been made about or referencing Kalaripayattu, one of the earliest known documentaries on the subject is aBBC documentary titledThe Way of the Warrior.[75] Kalaripayattu was also documented inSeason 2 of Fight Quest.[76]
Kalaripayattu has also featured in international andIndian films such as:
The linguistic, social, religious, historical, technical and geographical differences briefly recounted above suggest that kalarippayattu and varma ati are closely related but distinct systems of martial practice. Historically, it is probable that the similarity between the two arts depended entirely on proximity, with the kalarippayattu styles and traditions of Malabar quite distinct from those of Tamil practitioners, while those in southern Kerala were not only similar to one another, but were probably mixed styles of practice.
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