The name (ٱلْقَيْرَوَانal-Qayrawān) is anArabic word meaning "military group" or "caravan",[5][6] borrowed early on from theMiddle Persian wordkārawān[7] (modernPersianکاروانkârvân), meaning "military column" (kâr "people/military" +vân "outpost") or "caravan" (seecaravanserai).[8][9][10][11] InBerber, the city used to be calledتيكيروانTikirwan,[12] thought to be an adaptation of the Arabic name. It has also been romanized asCairoan in early modern English.[13]
The foundation of Kairouan dates to about the year 670 when theArab generalUqba ibn Nafi ofCaliphMu'awiya selected a site in the middle of a dense forest, then infested with wild beasts and reptiles, as the location of a military post for the conquest ofthe West.[citation needed] Formerly, the city of Kamounia was located where Kairouan now stands. It had housed a Byzantine garrison before the Arab conquest, and stood far from the sea – safe from the continued attacks of theBerbers who had fiercely resisted the Arab invasion. Berber resistance continued, led first byKusaila, whose troops killed Uqba atBiskra about fifteen years after the establishment of the military post,[14] and then by a Berber woman calledAl-Kahina who was killed and her army defeated in 702. Subsequently, there occurred a mass conversion of theBerbers to Islam.Kharijites or Islamic "outsiders" who formed an egalitarian and puritanical sect appeared and are still present on the island ofDjerba.
In October 741, in the course of theGreat Berber Revolt in theMaghreb, theIfriqiyan army, along with a Syrian force dispatched by the caliph, was destroyed by the Berbers at theBattle of Bagdoura. The governorKulthum ibn Iyad al-Qasi perished in the field, his nephew and successorBalj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri was holed up with the remnant of the army inSpain, leaving the whole of Ifriqiya open to the advance of the Berber rebels. Not having any more forces at his disposal, theUmayyad CaliphHisham quickly appointed Handhala ibn Safwan as governor of Ifriqiya, with supervisory authority over all theMaghreb (North Africa west of Egypt) andal-Andalus (Spain), and instructed him to take whatever forces he could gather to defend Ifriqiya and quash the Berber rebellion. Leaving Egypt in the hand ofHafs ibn al-Walid ibn Yusuf al-Hadrami, Handhala set out westwards in February 742, picking up additional forces fromBarqa (Cyrenaica) andTripoli (Tripolitana). He arrived in Kairouan around April, 742. Theqadi of Ifriqiya,Abd al-Rahman ibn Oqba al-Ghaffari, had been managing the defense of Kairouan, and succeeded in fending off an attack by the Berber rebel army raised in southern Tunisia by theSufrite leaderOqasha ibn Ayub al-Fezari. Handhala ibn Safwan arrived in Kairouan just as Oqasha was said to be mounting a new attack, in coordination with another large Berber army coming in from the west, led byAbd al-Wahid ibn Yazid al-Hawwari. The Berber rebel armies were to make junction in front of Kairouan, before launching their final attack on the city. Wasting no time, Handhala dispatched a cavalry force to slow down Abd al-Wahid's progress, and threw the bulk of his forces south, defeating Oqasha in a bloody battle atEl-Qarn and taking him prisoner. But Handhala had taken a lot of losses himself, and now faced the unhappy prospect of Abd al-Wahid's gigantic army, said to be some 300,000, ostensibly the largest Berber army ever seen. Hurrying back, Handhala is said to have put the entire population of Kairouan under arms to bolster his ranks, before setting out again. In perhaps the bloodiest encounter in the Berber wars, Handhala ibn Safwan defeated the great Berber army of Abd al-Wahid ibn Yazid atal-Asnam in May 742 (perhaps a little later), just three miles outside of Kairouan. Some 120,000–180,000 Berbers, including Abd al-Wahid, fell in the field of battle in that single encounter.[15]
In 745,KharijiteBerbers captured Kairouan, which was already at that time a developed city with luxuriant gardens and olive groves. Power struggles continued untilIbrahim ibn al-Aghlab recaptured Kairouan at the end of the 8th century.
In 800CaliphHarun ar-Rashid inBaghdad confirmed Ibrahim asemir and hereditary ruler of Ifriqiya. Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab founded theAghlabid dynasty which ruled Ifriqiya between 800 and 909. The new emirs embellished Kairouan and made it their capital. It soon became famous for its wealth and prosperity, reaching the levels ofBasra andKufa and giving Tunisia a period of power and prosperity.
The Aghlabid Basins
The Aghlabids built the great mosque and established in it a university that was a centre of education both in Islamic thought and in the secular sciences. Its role can be compared to that of theUniversity of Paris in theMiddle Ages. In the 9th century, the city became a brilliant focus of Arab and Islamic cultures attracting scholars from all over theIslamic World. In that periodImamSahnun andAsad ibn al-Furat made of Kairouan a temple of knowledge and a magnificent centre of diffusion of Islamic sciences. The Aghlabids also built palaces, fortifications and fine waterworks of which only the pools remain. From Kairouan envoys fromCharlemagne and theHoly Roman Empire returned with glowing reports of the Aghlabid palaces, libraries and gardens – and from the crippling taxation imposed to pay for their drunkenness and sundry debaucheries. The Aghlabids also pacified the country and conquered Sicily in 827.[16]
Gold coin of the Fatimid CaliphAl-Mahdi Billah, minted in Kairouan in 912 CE
In 893, through the mission ofAbdullah al Mahdi, theKutama Berbers from the west of the country started the movement of theShiiteFatimids. The year 909 saw the overthrow of theSunni Aghlabids who ruled Ifriqiya and the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty. During the rule of the Fatimids, Kairouan was neglected and lost its importance: the new rulers resided first inRaqqada but soon moved their capital to the newly builtAl Mahdiyah on the eastern coast of Tunisia. After succeeding in extending their rule over all of centralMaghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries ofMorocco,Algeria,Tunisia andLibya, they eventually moved east toEgypt to foundCairo making it the capital of their vast Caliphate and leaving theZirids as their vassals in Ifriqiya. Governing again from Kairouan, the Zirids led the country through another artistic, commercial and agricultural heyday. Schools and universities flourished, overseas trade in local manufactures and farm produce ran high and the courts of the Zirids rulers were centres of refinement that eclipsed those of their European contemporaries. When the Zirids declared their independence from Cairo and their conversion to Sunni Islam in 1045 by giving allegiance toBaghdad, the Fatimid CaliphMa'ad al-Mustansir Billah sent as punishment hordes of troublesome Arab tribes (Banu Hilal andBanu Sulaym) to invade Ifriqiya. These invaders so utterly captured Kairouan from the Zirids in 1057[17] and destroyed it that it never regained its former importance and their influx was a major factor in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant. Some 1,700 years of intermittent but continual progress was undone within a decade as in most part of the country the land was laid to waste for nearly two centuries.
Al-Idrisi described the city in the 12th century:[18]
The city of Kairouan is the mother of settlements and the capital of regions. It was once the greatest city of the West in its expanse, the most populous, the wealthiest, the most prosperous, the most finely built, and the most ambitious, with the most profitable trade, the highest tax revenues, the most flourishing markets, and the greatest commercial gains, while its people were also the most rebellious and the most arrogant of the ignorant, yet among its virtuous elite, the dominant qualities were adherence to righteousness, fulfillment of covenants, avoidance of doubtful matters, abstention from prohibitions, mastery of refined sciences, and an inclination toward moderation. But God Almighty afflicted it with the Arabs, and calamities befell it one after another, until nothing remained of it but fading ruins and obliterated traces. In our present time, only a portion of it is enclosed by an earthen wall. Its rulers are Arabs, who collect whatever revenues remain. A few people still reside there, engaged in modest trade with meager benefits. Scholars speculate that it will soon return to its former state of prosperity and grandeur. Its water supply is scarce, and its inhabitants drink from the great cistern (majel) within the city. This cistern is an architectural marvel, as it is built in a square shape with a tower-like structure rising in the center. Each side measures two hundred cubits, and it remains filled with water. Kairouan was originally two cities: one was Kairouan itself, and the other wasSabra. Sabra was the royal residence, and at the height of its prosperity, it contained three hundred baths—most of them private, while the rest were public for all people. Sabra, however, is now in complete ruin, devoid of any inhabitants.
In the 13th century under the prosperousHafsids dynasty that ruled Ifriqiya, the city started to emerge from its ruins. It is only under theHusainid Dynasty that Kairouan started to find an honorable place in the country and throughout the Islamic world.
In 1881, Kairouan was taken by the French, after which non-Muslims were allowed access to the city. The French built the600 mm (1 ft 11+5⁄8 in)Sousse–Kairouan Decauville railway, which operated from 1882 to 1996, before it was regauged to1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) gauge.[citation needed]
The old city of Kairouan and its associated historic monuments became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988.[19]
In December 2023, about 30m of wall near the Gate of the Leather Workers collapsed during restoration. Three masons were killed, and several others injured.[20]
Kairouan, the capital ofKairouan Governorate, lies south ofSousse, 50 km (31 mi) from the east coast, 75 km (47 mi) fromMonastir and 184 km (114 mi) fromTunis.
Between the 9th and 11th centuries AD, Kairouan functioned as one of the great centers of Islamic civilization and gained a reputation as a hotbed of scholarship across the entire Maghreb. During this period, theGreat Mosque of Kairouan became both a place of prayer and a center for teaching Islamic sciences under theMaliki current.[29] A unique religious tradition practiced in Kairouan was the use ofIslamic law to enforcemonogamy by stipulating it in the marriage contract.[30] Local tradition holds that seven pilgrimages to the Great Mosque equals one pilgrimage toMecca.[31][32][33] According to some, this makes Kairouan the fourth holiest city in Islam after Mecca,Medina andJerusalem.[34][35][36][37][note 2] As of 2004, the city contained 89 mosques.[33]Sufi festivals are held in the city in memory of saints.[42]
Before the arrival of the French in 1881, non-Muslims were forbidden from living in Kairouan.[43] A Christian community had existed during the early 11th century[44] alongside Jews who were among theoriginal settlers of Kairouan. The Jewish community's golden era began in the late 8th century and lasted until the early 11th century during which time it played an important role inJewish history, having been a world center ofTalmudic andHalakhic scholarship for at least three generations.[45] TheBanu Hilal conquest of Kairouan in 1057 led to the decline of the medieval community with Jews only returning after Tunisia was established as a French protectorate in 1881. By the 1960s the community had disappeared,[46] and all that remains is their dilapidated cemetery.
The city's main landmark is theGreat Mosque of Sidi-Uqba (also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan) which is one of the most impressive and largest Islamic monuments inNorth Africa. Originally built when Kairouan was founded in 670 AD, the mosque currently occupies an area of over 9,000 square metres (97,000 sq ft) and is one of the oldest places of worship in theIslamic world. The mosque became a center of education both in Islamic thought and in the secular sciences and helped the city to develop and expand.
TheMosque of the Three Doors was founded in 866. Its façade is a notable example ofIslamic architecture.[47] It has three arched doorways surmounted by three inscriptions inKufic script, interspersed with floral and geometrical reliefs and topped by a carved frieze; the first inscription includes the verses 70–71 in thesura 33 of Quran.[48] The small minaret was added during the restoration works held under theHafsid dynasty. The prayer hall has a nave and two aisles, divided by arched columns, parallel to theqibla wall.
TheZawiya of Sidi Sahib, also known as the Mosque of the Barber, is a religious complex containing the mausoleum of Abu Zama' al-Balawi, acompanion of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, who, according to legend, had saved for himself three hairs of Muhammad's beard, hence the edifice's name.[49] The complex was first built up in the 14th century under the Hafsids, but in its present state it dates from the 17th century, under the Muradids.[50] The tomb chamber is accessed from a cloister-like court with rich tile and stucco decoration. In addition to the mausoleum, the complex includes a madrasa and several other facilities.[51]
TheAghlabid basins are a Tunisian historical monument located in Kairouan. Dating from the 9th century and located outside the ramparts of the medina of Kairouan, they are considered to be the most important hydraulic systems in the history of the Muslim world.[52] The structure covers an area of 11,000 square meters and consists of a small settling basin, a large basin for storing water and two drawing tanks, all having a total storage capacity of 68,800 cubic meters.[53]
The Kairouan region currently has 167 industrial companies offering more than 10,000 jobs, of which 33 are fully exporters.The industrial activities of the region are quite diversified, although the agrifood industry sector is preeminent with 91 units.[54]
The governorate of Kairouan is known mainly for the production of vegetables (peppers, tomatoes) and fruits (apricots, almonds and olives). It is the leading national producer of chili peppers with nearly 90,000 tonnes in 2019, as well as apricots with more than 15,000 tonnes.[55]
Kairouan is one of the four most visited sites inTunisia along withCarthage,El Jem andLe Bardo as historic sites. Tourist activity is focused on the historic sites and monuments of the city of Kairouan.[56]
Kairouan was used as a filming location for the 1981 filmRaiders of the Lost Ark, standing in forCairo.[57] As the film is set in 1936, television antennas throughout the city were taken down for the duration of filming.[58]
^Europa Publications "General Survey: Holy Places"The Middle East and North Africa 2003, p. 147. Routledge, 2003.ISBN1-85743-132-4. "The city is regarded as a holy place for Muslims."
^Hutchinson Encyclopedia 1996 Edition. Helicon Publishing Ltd,Oxford. 1996. p. 572.ISBN1-85986-107-5.
^Conant, Jonathan (2012).Staying Roman: conquest and identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 280–281.ISBN978-0-521-19697-0.
^Idris, Hady Roger (1968). "L'invasion hilālienne et ses conséquences".Cahiers de civilisation médiévale.11 (43):353–369.doi:10.3406/ccmed.1968.1452.ISSN0007-9731.
^"Klimatafel von Kairouan / Tunesien"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved19 October 2016.
^Saladin, Henri[in French] (1908).Tunis et Kairouan (in French) (Henri Laurens ed.).Paris. p. 118.One may conceivably compare its role to that of the University of Paris during the Middle Ages.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Prah, Kwesi (11–12 May 2004),Towards a Strategic Geopolitic Vision of Afro-Arab Relations, AU Headquarters,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia, archived fromthe original on 28 September 2007,By 670, the Arabs had taken Tunisia, and by 675, they had completed construction of Kairouan, the city that would become the premier Arab base in North Africa. Kairouan was later to become the third holiest city in Islam in the medieval period, after Mecca and Medina, because of its importance as the centre of the Islamic faith in the Maghrib.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Lecoquierre, Marion (2019)."Hebron: A nested division of sacred spaces". In Dumper, Michael (ed.).Contested Holy Cities: The Urban Dimension of Religious Conflicts. Routledge.ISBN978-0-429-67384-9.Hebron is often presented as the fourth holy city of Islam after Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem
^Santelli, Serge (2008)."Harar: The Fourth Holy City of Islam". In Jayyusi, Salma K.; Holod, Renata; Petruccioli, Attilio; Raymond, André (eds.).The City in the Islamic World. Brill. p. 631.ISBN978-90-04-16240-2.Harar, which is known as being the fourth Holy city of Islam (...)
^Saladin, Henri[in French] (1908).Tunis et Kairouan. Voyages à travers l'architecture, l'artisanat et les mœurs du début du XXe siècle. Paris: Henri Laurens.
^Kircher, Gisela (1970).Die Moschee des Muhammad b. Hairun (Drei-Tore-Moschee) in Qairawân/Tunesien. Vol. 26. Cairo: Publications de l'Institut archéologique allemand. pp. 141–167.
^Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; Boda, Sharon La (1995)."Kairouan (Tunisia)".International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa. Taylor & Francis. p. 391.ISBN978-1-884964-03-9.
^"Kardeş Şehirler".Bursa Büyükşehir Belediyesi Basın Koordinasyon Merkez. Tüm Hakları Saklıdır. Archived fromthe original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved27 July 2013.
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