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| Kainantu–Goroka | |
|---|---|
| East Highlands | |
| Geographic distribution | highlands ofKainantu andGoroka,Eastern Highlands Province,Papua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea
|
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | kain1273 |
 Map: The Kainantu–Goroka languages of New Guinea The Kainantu–Goroka languages Other Trans–New Guinea languages Other Papuan languages Austronesian languages Uninhabited | |
TheKainantu–Goroka languages are afamily ofPapuan languages established byArthur Capell in 1948 under the nameEast Highlands. They formed the core ofStephen Wurm's 1960East New Guinea Highlands family (the precursor ofTrans–New Guinea), and are one of the larger branches of Trans–New Guinea in the 2005 classification ofMalcolm Ross.
The constituent Kainantu and Goroka families are clearly valid groups, and bothWilliam A. Foley and Timothy Usher consider their TNG identity to be established. The languages are:[1]
The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for proto-Kainantu–Goroka, proto-Kainantu, and proto-Goroka are as follows:
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|
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The possessive forms are:
| sg | pl | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | *na-i | *ta-i |
| 2 | *ka | *tana-i |
| 3 | *[y]a, *wa | *ya-i, *yana-i |
Kainantu–Goroka reflexes ofproto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:[2]
Innovations in proto-Kainantu-Goroka replacingproto-Trans-New Guinea forms:[2]
Gorokan basic vocabulary fromWilliam A. Foley (1986).[3]
Despite the presence of reconstructions in the left column, the words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g.ya,yafa,yava for “tree”) or not (e.g.tuva,logo,hali for “fire”).
| gloss | Proto-Gorokan | Gende | Siane | Benabena | Kamono–Yagaria | Fore |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'two' | *tote | ogondrari | lele | loe | lole | tara |
| 'man' | *we | vei | we | vo | ve | wa |
| 'water' | *no(k) | nogoi | no | nagami | ni(na) | wani |
| 'fire' | tuva | yo | logo | hali | yakuʔ | |
| 'tree' | *ya | izo | ya | yafa | yava | yaː |
| 'leaf' | kuruma | aila | haya(ʔa) | haeya | aʔyeʔ | |
| 'root' | *supa | tovaya | lufawa | lufusa(ʔa) | havu | aubu |
| 'house' | *nom | nomu | numu(na) | no(hi) | yo(na) | naːmaʔ |
| 'breast' | *ami | ami- | ami(na) | amiha(ʔa) | ami(maʔa) | nono |
| 'tooth' | *wa | va(iza) | auma | yogo(ʔa) | (ä)vep | (a)wa |
| 'bone' | *yampu | yami- | auma | felisa(ʔa) | (a)pu(va) | (a)yaːmpu |
| 'ear' | *ke/a | ka- | ka(la) | (e)kesa(ʔa) | (ä)geta | (a)ge |
| 'hair' | *yoka | yogo | yowa(la) | oka(ʔa) | (a)yokaʔ | (a)yaːʔ |
| 'leg' | *kia | kia- | kiya(na) | gigusa(ʔa) | (a)gia | (a)gisaː |
| 'blood' | *kota | mamia- | wanu | golaha(ʔa) | gola(na) | koraːʔ |
| 'hand' | *ya | ya | a(na) | yaha(ʔa) | (ä)ya | ya |
| 'egg' | *mut | mura | mula | mu(ʔa) | mu(na) | amuʔ |
| 'sun' | *po | po | fo | yafi | yafo | yaːbu |
| 'axe' | *tu | tu | luna | lu | lu | tuʔ |
| 'netbag' | *ko | ko | owo | gu(ʔi) | gu(na) | koʔ |
| 'eat' | *na- | na- | n- | na- | no- | na- |
| 'die' | *puti- | pri- | fol- | fili- | fili- | puri- |
| 'say' | *si- | ti- | l- | li- | hi- | i- |
| 'give' | *mi- | imi- | om- | m- | mi- | mi- |
| 'big' | *(n)ampa | namba | namba | napa | legepa | tabe |
Kainantu basic vocabulary fromWilliam A. Foley (1986):[3]
| gloss | Awa | Auyana | Gadsup | Tairora |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'two' | tɔtare | kaiʔa | kaantani | taaraʔanta |
| 'man' | wɛ | waiya | banta | bainti |
| 'water' | no | nomba | nomi | namari |
| 'fire' | ira | irama | ikai | iha |
| 'tree' | ta | taima | yaani | katari |
| 'leaf' | ɔnɔ | anama | anai | mare |
| 'root' | anuʔ | anuʔa | anuʔi | tuʔa |
| 'house' | nɔ | naamba | maʔi | naabu |
| 'breast' | nɔ | naamba | naami | naama |
| 'tooth' | awɛ | awaiyamba | abakuni | aabai |
| 'bone' | ayɔnta | ayaantamba | ayampai | buhaarima |
| 'ear' | ɔre | aʔa | aakami | aato |
| 'hair' | (a)yɔra | aayara | -nyoi | kauhi |
| 'leg' | ai | aisamima | akani | aiʔu |
| 'blood' | nɛe | naema | naarei | naare |
| 'hand' | ayɔnobeh | ayamba | aayaami | kauʔu |
| 'egg' | au | auma | amuʔi | auru |
| 'sun' | popoʔnah | aabauma | ikona | kauri |
| 'axe' | konaro | koraroba | kuntaʔi | kaarima |
| 'netbag' | unɔ | unaamba | unaami | uta |
| 'eat' | nɔno | nare | naano | naana |
| 'die' | pukire | pukai | pukono | ʔutubiro |
| 'say' | iraruwo | siyo | seʔu | tiena |
| 'give' | awiʔ | ami | ameno | amina |
| 'big' | aanotɔ | anomba | inoʔna | nora |
Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-East Kainantu and Proto-North Kainantu by Usher (2020) are:[4][5]
| gloss | Proto-East Kainantu | Proto-North Kainantu |
|---|---|---|
| head | *piᵄtɐ | *noːN |
| hair/feather | *jɐᵘsi | *jɐᵘ |
| ear | *ɑːtoː | *ɑːʔ |
| eye | *wu | *u |
| nose | *ipi | *siʔ |
| tooth | *wɐⁱ | *wɐj |
| tongue | *m₂ɑːpiɾi | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ |
| leg | *ipu | *tɐɾ |
| blood | *wi[ʔt]ipɐ | *nɑːɾeː |
| bone | *muʔjɑːni | *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ |
| breast | *nɑːNmɐ | *nɑːN |
| louse | *numɐ | *nuN |
| dog | *w₂ɐⁱni | *ijɐN |
| pig | *p₂uᵄɾɐ | *poːɾ |
| bird | *inɑːmɐ; *uwini | *nuN |
| egg | *uɾu | *uɾ |
| tree | *jɐtɐɾi | *jɑːj |
| sun | *j₂uᵄni | *ɑːʔ |
| moon | *[u]toːnɐ | *wi[ɾ]oːN |
| water | *noːni | *noːN |
| fire | *iʔjɐ | *itɐ |
| stone | *oːni | *oː[ɾ/j] |
| path | *ɑːni | *ɑːj |
| man | *wɐⁱ-iNti | *wɑːⁱNsɐ |
| woman | *ɐnɑːjeː | *ɐnɑːsi |
| name | *utu | *wiʔ |
| eat | *nɐ- | |
| one | *moːʔjɑː | *mɐnɑː |
| two | *tɑːɾɐ | *tɑːN |