 A painting of a Kabyle woman in folk costume | |
| Total population | |
| c. 6 million[1][2] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Kabylia | |
 Algeria | c. 5 million[3][4][1] |
 France | c. 1 million[5][6] |
 Canada | 37,415[7] |
| Languages | |
| Kabyle Algerian Arabic,[8]French[9] | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlySunniIslam[10][11] | |
TheKabyle people (/kəˈbaɪl/,Kabyle:Izwawen orLeqbayel orIqbayliyen,pronounced[iqβæjlijən],Arabic:القبائل,romanized: al-qabā'il)[12][13] are aBerberethnic group indigenous toKabylia in the north ofAlgeria, spread across theAtlas Mountains, 160 kilometres (100 mi) east ofAlgiers. They represent the largest Berber population ofAlgeria and the second largest inNorth Africa.
Many of the Kabyles have emigrated from Algeria, influenced by factors such as theAlgerian Civil War,[14] cultural repression by the central Algerian government,[15] and overall industrial decline. Their diaspora has resulted in Kabyle people living in numerous countries. Large populations of Kabyle people settled in France and, to a lesser extent, Canada (mainlyQuébec) and United States.
The Kabyle people speakKabyle, a Berber language. Since theBerber Spring of 1980, they have been at the forefront of the fight for theofficial recognition of Berber languages in Algeria.
The word 'Kabyle' (Kabyle: Iqbayliyen) is anexonym, and a distortion of theArabic wordqaba'il (قبائل), which means 'tribes', or 'to accept', which after theMuslim conquest was used for people who accepted the word of theQuran.[16] The term qaba'il was used, and is still somewhat used by various peoples in Algeria to refer to various mountain dwelling tribes, including the Kabyle people.[16][17]
The term used for Kabyles specifically was 'Zwawa' ('Izwawen' in Kabyle, 'زواوة' in Arabic). This appellation has been used since the medieval era for the tribes ofGreater Kabylia, and is featured in important medieval ethnographic works likeIbn Khaldun's.[18][19] After the French conquest, the French often confused the term "Arabs" and "Kabyle" thanks to the widespread usage of Kabyle all over the country. Although initially the French used the term Kabyle to refer to all Berbers, it was later specified to mean only the modern Kabyle people during the colonial era,[16] however, Zwawa is still the most used term for Kabyles in areas such as western Algeria.[20]
The Kabyles were one of the few peoples in North Africa who remained independent during successive rule by the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines, and the Ottoman Turks.[21][22][23][24][25] Even after theArab conquest of North Africa, the Kabyle people still maintained possession of their mountains.[26][27][25]
Between 902 and 909, after being converted toIsma'ilism and won over byAbu Abdallah's propaganda,[28] theKutama Berbers from Little Kabylie helped contribute to the founding of theFatimid Caliphate, whose support in the conquest ofIfriqiya[29] resulted in the creation of the Caliphate,[30][31][32][33][34] although the rulingFatimid dynasty wasArab. After the conquest of Ifriqiya the Fatimids conquered the realm of theRustamids on the way to Sijilmasa which they also then briefly conquered and whereAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who at the time was imprisoned, was then freed and then accepted as the Imam of the movement and installed as the Caliph, becoming the first Caliph and the founder of the ruling dynasty.[35][36][37] The historian Heinz Halm describes the early Fatimid state as being "a hegemony of the Kutama and Sanhaja Berbers over the eastern and central Maghrib" and Prof. Dr. Loimeier states that rebellions against the Fatimids were also expressed through protest and opposition to Kutama rule.[38][39] The weakening of the Abbasids allowed Fatimid-Kutama power to quickly expand and in 959 Ziri ibn Manad, Jawhar the Sicilian and a Kutama army conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in Morocco.[40][39] During the reign ofal-Aziz Billah, the role of the Kutama in the Fatimid army was greatly weakened as he significantly reduced their size in the army and included new socio-military groups.[41] In 969 under the command ofJawhar, the Fatimid Kutama troops conquered Egypt from the Ikhsidids, the generalJa'far ibn Fallah was instrumental in this success: he led the troops that crossed the river Nile and according to al-Maqrizi, captured the boats used to do this from a fleet sent by Ikhshidid loyalists from Lower Egypt.[42] The general Ja’far then invaded Palestine and conqueredRamla, the capital, he then conqueredDamascus and made himself the master of the city and then he moved north and conqueredTripoli.[43][44] It was around this time period that the Fatimid Caliphate reached its territorial peak of 4,100,000 km2.[45]
TheZirid Dynasty was a family ofSanhadja Berbers with origins in the Kabyle mountains.[46] During their reign they established their rule over the entire Maghreb and also established rule in parts ofAndalusia. They also hadsuzerainty over the Emirate of Sicily through theKalbite emirs and later assassinated the ruler and took over the island.[47] When the Emirate of Sicily was split into separatetaifas, Ayyub Ibn Tamim entered Sicily and united all of the taifas under his rule until he left the island.
TheHammadids came to power after declaring their independence from the Zirids. They managed to conquer land in all of the Maghreb region, capturing and possessing significant territories such as:Algiers,Béjaïa,Tripoli,Sfax, Susa,Fez,Ouargla andSijilmasa.[48][49][50] South of Tunisia, they also possessed a number ofoases that were the termini oftrans-Saharan trade routes.[51]
These two Kabyle Kingdoms managed to maintain their independence and participated in notable battles alongside theRegency of Algiers, such as thecampaign of Tlemcen and theconquest of Fez. In the early 16th century Sultan Abdelaziz of the Beni Abbes managed to defeat the Ottomans several times, notably in theFirst Battle of Kalaa of the Beni Abbes.
The Kabyle were relatively independent of outside control during the period ofOttoman Empire rule in North Africa. They lived primarily in three different kingdoms: theKingdom of Kuku, theKingdom of Ait Abbas, and the principality of Aït Jubar.[52] Kabylia was the last part of northern Algeria to be colonised by the French during the years 1854–1857, despite vigorous resistance.[53] Such leaders asLalla Fatma N'Soumer continued the resistance as late asMokrani's rebellion in 1871.
French colonists invented theKabyle myth in the 19th century which asserted that the Kabyle people were more predisposed than Arabs to assimilate into "French civilization." Lacoste explained that "turning the Arabs into invaders was one way of legitimizing the French presence".[54]
Kabyle villages were ruled through an indirect administration based on the preservation of Kabyle traditional political institutions such as the village’s assemblies djemaas, this institution played a central role in the Kabyle’s self-governing.[53] The djemaas would resolve disputes between the village’s inhabitants and edict the customary law rules.[53] French officials confiscated much land from the more recalcitrant tribes and granted it to colonists, who became known aspieds-noirs During this period, the French carried out many arrests anddeported resisters, mainly toNew Caledonia in theSouth Pacific. Due to French colonization, many Kabyle emigrated to other areas inside and outside Algeria.[55] Over time, immigrant workers also began to go to France.
In the 1920s, Algerian immigrant workers in France organized the first party promoting Algerians independence.Messali Hadj, Imache Amar, Si Djilani Mohammed, andBelkacem Radjef rapidly built a strong following throughout France and Algeria in the 1930s. They developed militants who became vital to the fighting for an independent Algeria. This became widespread after World War II.
Since Algeria gained independence in 1962, tensions have arisen between Kabylie and the central government on several occasions. In July 1962, theFLN (National Liberation Front) was split rather than united. Indeed, many actors who contributed to independence wanted a share of power but theALN (National Liberation Army) directed byHouari Boumédiène, joined byAhmed Ben Bella, had the upper hand because of their military forces.[citation needed]
In 1963 theFFS party ofHocine Aït Ahmed contested the authority of theFLN, which had promoted itself as the only party in the nation. Aït Ahmed and others considered the central government led by Ben Bella authoritarian, and on September 3, 1963, theFFS (Socialist Forces front) was created byHocine Aït Ahmed.[56] This party grouped opponents of the regime then in place, and a few days after its proclamation, Ben Bella sent the army into Kabylie to repress the insurrection. Colonel Mohand Oulhadj also took part in theFFS and in the Maquis (fr) because he considered that themujahideen were not treated as they should be.[57] In the beginning, the FFS wanted to negotiate with the government but since no agreement was reached, the maquis took up arms and swore not to give them up as long as democratic principles and justice were[clarification needed] a part of the system. But after Mohand Oulhadj's defection, Aït Ahmed could barely sustain the movement and after theFLN congress on April 16, 1964, which reinforced the government's legitimacy, he was arrested in October 1964. As a consequence, the insurrection was a failure in 1965 because it was hugely repressed by the forces of the ALN, under Houari Boumédiène. In 1965 Aït Ahmed was sentenced to death, but later pardoned by Ben Bella. Approximately 400 deaths were counted amongst the maquis.[56]
In 1980, protesters mounted several months of demonstrations in Kabylie demanding the recognition of Berber as an official language; this period has been called theBerber Spring. In 1994–1995, the Kabyle conducted a school boycott, termed the "strike of the school bag". In June and July 1998, they protested, in events that turned violent, after the assassination of singerMatoub Lounès and passage of a law requiring use of the Arabic language in all fields.
In the months following April 2001 (called theBlack Spring), major riots among the Kabyle took place following the killing of Masinissa Guermah, a young Kabyle, by gendarmes. At the same time, organized activism produced theArouch, and neo-traditional local councils. The protests gradually decreased after the Kabyle won some concessions from PresidentAbdelaziz Bouteflika.
On 6 January 2016, Tamazight was officially recognized in Algeria's constitution as a language equal to Arabic.[58]
The geography of the Kabyle region played an important role in the people's history. The difficult mountainous landscape of theTizi Ouzou andBejaia provinces served as a refuge, to which most of the Kabyle people retreated when under pressure or occupation. They were able to preserve their cultural heritage in such isolation from other cultural influences.
The area supported local dynasties (Numidia, Fatimids in the Kutama periods, Zirids, Hammadids, and Hafsids of Bejaïa) or Algerian modern nationalism, and the war of independence. The region was repeatedly occupied by various conquerors. Romans and Byzantines controlled the main road and valley during the period of antiquity and avoided the mountains (Mont ferratus).[59]During the spread of Islam, Arabs controlled plains but not all the countryside (they were calledel aadua: enemy by the Kabyle).[60]
TheRegency of Algiers, under Ottoman influence, tried to have indirect influence over the people (makhzen tribes of Amraoua, and marabout).[61]
The French gradually and totally conquered the region and set up a direct administration.
Algerian provinces with significant Kabyle-speaking populations includeTizi Ouzou,Béjaïa andBouira, where they are a majority, as well asBoumerdes,Setif,Bordj Bou Arreridj, andJijel.Algiers also has a significant Kabyle population, where they make up more than half of the capital's population.
The Kabyle region is referred to asAl Qabayel ("tribes") by the Arabic-speaking population and asKabylie in French. Its indigenous inhabitants call itTamurt Idurar ("Land of Mountains") orTamurt n Iqbayliyen/Tamurt n Iqbayliyen ("Land of the Kabyle"). It is part of theAtlas Mountains and is located at the edge of the Mediterranean.
The Kabyleethnic group speakKabyle, aBerber language of theAfro-Asiatic family. It is the largestBerber language in Algeria.[62] It was spoken by 3 million people in 2004[63] and has significantArabic,French,Latin,Greek,Phoenician andPunic substratum, with Arabic loanwords representing 22.7% to 46%[64] of the total Kabyle vocabulary, with many estimates putting it at about 35%.[65] Many Kabyles also speakAlgerian Arabic andFrench.
During the first centuries of their history, Kabyles used theLibyco-Berber writing system (ancestor of the modern Tifinagh). Since the beginning of the 19th century, and under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use theLatin script. It is the basis for the modernBerber Latin alphabet.
After theindependence of Algeria, some Kabyle activists tried to revive the Old Tifinagh alphabet. This new version of Tifinagh has been calledNeo-Tifinagh, but its use remains limited. Kabyle literature has continued to be written in the Latin script.
The Kabyle people are mainlyMuslim, with a smallChristian minority.[66] ManyZawaya exist all over the region; theRahmaniyya is the most prolific.
Catholics of Kabyle background generally live in France. Recently, the Protestant community has had significant growth, particularly amongEvangelical denominations.[67]
The Kabyle people have a rich history oforal literature, such asasefru, performed byimusnawen.[68]
The traditional economy of the area is based onarboriculture (orchards andolive trees) and on the craft industry (tapestry orpottery). Mountain and hill farming is gradually giving way to local industry (textile and agro-alimentary). In the middle of the 20th century, with the influence and funding by the Kabyle diaspora, many industries were developed in this region. It has become the second most important industrial region in the country after Algiers.[citation needed]
The Kabyle have been fierce activists in promoting the cause of Berber (Amazigh) identity. The movement has three groups: those Kabyle who identify as part of a larger Berber nation (Berberists); those who identify as part of the Algerian nation (known as "Algerianists", some view Algeria as an essentially Berber nation); and those who consider the Kabyle to be a distinct nation separate from (but akin to) other Berber peoples (known asKabylists).
For historical and economic reasons, many Kabyles have emigrated to France, both for work and to escape political persecution. They now number around 1 million people.[72][73] Some notable French people are of full or partial Kabyle descent.
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