 Hittite palace at Kültepe | |
  Kültepe Shown within Turkey | |
| Location | Kayseri Province, Turkey |
|---|---|
| Region | Anatolia |
| Coordinates | 38°51′N35°38′E / 38.850°N 35.633°E /38.850; 35.633 |
| Type | Settlement |
| History | |
| Cultures | Hittite Assyrian |
| Site notes | |
| Excavation dates | 1906, 1925, 1948-2013 |
| Archaeologists | Hugo Grothe, Bedřich Hrozný, Tahsin Özgüç, Fikri Kulakoğlu |
| Condition | In ruins |
Kültepe (Turkish:lit. 'ash-hill'), also known under its ancient nameKaneš (Kanesh, sometimes alsoKaniš/Kanish) orNeša (Nesha), is anarchaeological site inKayseri Province, Turkey. It was already a major settlement at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC (Early Bronze Age), but it is world-renowned for its significance at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC (Middle Bronze Age).[1] The archaeological site consists of a large mound (also known as höyük, tepe or tell), and a lower city, where akārum (theAssyrian word for trading district[2]) was established in the beginning of the 2nd Millennium BC. So far, 23,500cuneiform tablets recovered from private houses constitute the largest collection of private texts in the ancient Near East.[3] In 2014, the archaeological site was inscribed in theTentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey.[3]
Kültepe is located about 20 km northeast from the modern cityKayseri. Its ancient name is recorded in Assyrian and Hittite sources. In Assyrian inscriptions from the 20th and the 19th century BC, the city was mentioned asKaneš (also transcribed as Kanesh); in laterHittite inscriptions, the city was mentioned asNeša (sometimes transcribed as Nesha, Nessa or Nesa. Neša derives from [Ka]neša).
The site is divided into two main areas: the circular mound (tepe, höyük) and the lower town to its northeast. The mound was inhabited (with discontinuity) from the Early Bronze Age through the Roman Empire, while the lower town was occupied only from the last decades of the third millennium to the early sixteenth century BCE.[4] The lower town displays four levels of occupation, with only levels II (approximately 1945–1835 BCE) and Ib (approximately 1832–1700 BCE)—which roughly correspond to the Middle Bronze Age—yielding significant written records, totaling around 22,200 and 560 tablets, respectively. In contrast, only forty scattered tablets were found on the mound, where palaces and temples were uncovered, indicating that there are no surviving archives from the local authorities, if such archives ever existed.[4] Thiskārum appears to have served as "the administrative and distribution centre of the entire Assyrian colony network in Anatolia".[5] A late record, from circa 1400 BC, recounts the story of a king of Kaneš called Zipani, with seventeen local city-kings who rose up againstNaram-Sin of Akkad, who ruled circa 2254–2218 BC.[6]
During thekārum period, and before the conquest ofPitḫana, these local kings reigned in Kaneš:
The king ofZalpuwa,Uḫna, raided Kaneš, after which the Zalpuwans carried off the city'sŠiuš idol. Pitḫana, the king ofKuššara, conquered Neša "in the night, by force", but "did not do evil to anyone in it".[8] Neša revolted against the rule of Pitḫana's son,Anitta, but Anitta quashed the revolt and made Neša his capital. Anitta further invaded Zalpuwa, captured its kingHuzziya, and recovered theŠiuš idol for Neša.[9]
In the 17th century BC, Anitta's descendants moved their capital toHattusa, which Anitta had cursed, thus founding theline of Hittite kings. The inhabitants thus referred to theHittite language asNešili 'the Neša tongue'.
By 1880, cuneiform tablets said to be fromKara Eyuk ('black village') orGyul Tepé ('burnt mound') nearKaisariyeh, had begun to appear on the market, some being thus bought by theBritish Museum.[10] In response the site was worked byErnest Chantre for two seasons, beginning in 1893.[11]Hugo Grothe dug a small soundage in 1906.[12]In 1925,Bedřich Hrozný excavated Kültepe and found over 1000 cuneiform tablets, some of which ended up inPrague and inIstanbul.[13][14][15] In 1929 the site was visitedand photographed byJames Henry Breasted of the Oriental Institute of Chicago. There had been much digging for fertilizer, which had destroyed a quarter of the mound.[16]
Modern archaeological work began in 1948, when Kültepe was excavated by a team from the Turkish Historical Society and the General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums. The team was led byTahsin Özgüç until his death, in 2005.[17][18] After 2005 the excavation was directed by Fikri Kulakoğlu.[19][20]
Some attribute Level II's burning to the conquest of the city ofAssur by the kings ofEshnunna, but Bryce blames it on the raid ofUhna. Some attribute Level Ib's burning to the fall of Assur, other nearby kings and eventually toHammurabi of Babylon.
To date, over 22,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from the site, mainly from thekārum, with only 40 found in the Upper city.[24][25][26]
Subsequent excavations attested the following stratigraphy of Kültepe:[27]
| Upper Town Level | Lower Town Level | Period | Name, Importance |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | — | Early Bronze Age I | |
| 17–14 | — | Early Bronze Age II | |
| 13–11 | — | Early Bronze Age III 2500–2100 BC[28] | Kaneš; first written asGa-ni-šu ki[29] Level 12 temple (megaron) and Level 11bbuilding with pilasters[30] |
| 10 | IV | Middle Bronze Age 2100–2000 BC | Beginning of urban development |
| 9 | III | Middle Bronze Age 2000–1970 BC | |
| 8 | II | kārum-period 1974/1927–1836 BC | Kaniš; Anatolian center of Assyrian trade |
| 7 | Ib | kārum-period 1832/1800–1719 BC | Kaniš; Assyrian trading center |
| 6 | Ia | Old Hittite period | Neša; the place no longer has a central function |
| Settlement gap | |||
| 5–4 | — | Iron Age 9/8 century BC | important central location in theNeo-Hittite stateTabal |
| Settlement gap | |||
| 3 | Graves | Hellenistic Age | Anisa;Polis; Coin finds from 323 BC |
| 2–1 | Graves | Roman Age | insignificant settlement; Coin finds up to 180 AD |
Recently, in "a small cell-plan structure cutting the walls of the monumental building [o]f Kültepe [Level 13], dated to the second half of the 3rd Millennium BC, statuettes made of alabaster with various attributes and ritual vessels in unprecedented forms were found in situ," and inside a "monumental building [d]iscovered in 2018 [which] contains a room called the 'idol room,' [a] collection of the largest number of idols and statuettes ever discovered in the ancient Near East [was found]."[31]
The quarter of the city that most interests historians is thekārum, a portion of the city that was set aside by local officials for the early Assyrian merchants to use without paying taxes as long as the goods remained inside thekārum. The termkārum means "port" inAkkadian, thelingua franca of the time, but its meaning was later extended to refer to any trading colony whether or not it bordered water.
Several other cities in Anatolia also had akārum, but the largest was Kaneš, whose importantkārum was inhabited by soldiers and merchants fromAssyria for hundreds of years. They traded local tin and wool for luxury items, foodstuffs, spices and woven fabrics from the Assyrian homeland andElam.
The remains of thekārum form a large circular mound 500 m in diameter and about 20 m above the plain (a tell). Thekārum settlement is the result of several superimposed stratigraphic periods. New buildings were constructed on top of the remains of the earlier periods so there is a deepstratigraphy from prehistoric times to the early Hittite period.
Thekārum was destroyed by fire at the end of levels II and Ib. The inhabitants left most of their possessions behind, as found by modern archaeologists.
The findings have included numerous baked-clay tablets, some of which were enclosed in clay envelopes stamped withcylinder seals.[32] The documents record common activities, such as trade between the Assyrian colony and the city-state ofAssur and between Assyrian merchants and local people. The trade was run by families rather than the state. TheKültepe texts are the oldest documents from Anatolia. Although they are written in Old Assyrian, theHittite loanwords and names in the texts are the oldest record of any Indo-European language.[33] Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence.
At Level II, the destruction was so total that no wood survived fordendrochronological studies. In 2003, researchers fromCornell University dated wood in level Ib from the rest of the city, built centuries earlier. The dendrochronologists date the bulk of the wood from buildings of the Waršama Sarayi to 1832 BC, with further refurbishments up to 1779 BC.[34]In 2016 new research using radiocarbon dating and dendrology on timber used in this site and the palace in Acemhöyük show the likely earliest use of the palace as not before 1851–1842 BC (68.2% hpd) or 1855–1839 BC (95.4% hpd).[35] In combination with the many Assyrian objects found here, this dating shows that only middle or low-middle chronology are the only remaining possible chronologies that fit these new data.
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