Language derived from Medieval Spanish spoken by Sephardic Jews
"Ladino language" redirects here. For the Ladin language (ISO 639–3: lld) in Northern Italy, seeLadin language. For other uses of the term "Ladino", seeLadino.
Judaeo-Spanish orJudeo-Spanish (autonymDjudeo-Espanyol,Hebrew script:גֿודֿיאו-איספאנייול),[3] also known asLadino orJudezmo orSpaniolit, is aRomance language derived from CastilianOld Spanish.
Historically, theRashi script and its cursive formSolitreo have been the main orthographies for writing Ladino. However, today it is mainly written with the Latin alphabet, though some otheralphabets such as Hebrew and Cyrillic are still in use. Judaeo-Spanish has been known also by other names, such as:Español (Espanyol, Spaniol, Spaniolish, Espanioliko),Judió (Judyo, Djudyo) orJidió (Jidyo, Djidyo),Judesmo (Judezmo, Djudezmo),Sefaradhí (Sefaradi) orḤaketía (in North Africa).[8] In Turkey, and formerly in the Ottoman Empire, it has been traditionally calledYahudice inTurkish, meaning the 'Jewish language.' In Israel, Hebrew speakers usually call the languageLadino,Espanyolit orSpanyolit.
Ladino, once the Jewishlingua franca of theAdriatic Sea, the Balkans, and the Middle East, and renowned for its rich literature, especially inSalonika, today is under serious threat ofextinction. Mostnative speakers are elderly, and the language is not transmitted to their children or grandchildren for various reasons; consequently, all Judeo-Spanish-speaking communities are undergoing alanguage shift. In 2018, four native speakers in Bosnia were identified;[9] however, two of them have since died, David Kamhi in 2021[10] and Moris Albahari in late 2022.[11] In someexpatriate communities inSpain,Latin America, and elsewhere, there is a threat of assimilation by modern Spanish. It is experiencing, however, a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially inmusic.
The Jewish scholarJoseph Nehama, author of the comprehensiveDictionnaire du judéo-espagnol, referred to the language asJudeo-Espagnol.[12] The 1903 Hebrew–Judeo-SpanishHaggadah entitled "Seder Haggadah shel pesaḥ ʿim pitron be-lashon sefaradi" (סדר הגדה של פסח עם פתרון בלשון ספרדי), from the Sephardic community ofLivorno, Italy, refers to the language used for explanation as theSefaradi language.[13] The rare Judeo-Spanish-language textbook entitledNuevo Silibaryo Espanyol, published in Salonica in 1929, referred to the language asEspanyol andlingua Djudeo-Espanyola.[14]
The language is also calledJudeo-Espanyol,[note 1]Judeoespañol,[15]Sefardí,Judío, andEspanyol orEspañol sefardita;Haketia (fromArabic:حكى,romanized: ḥakà 'tell') refers to the dialect of North Africa, especiallyMorocco. Judeo-Spanish has also been referred to asJudesmo (alsoJudezmo, Djudesmo orDjudezmo).[16] The dialect of theOran area of Algeria was calledTétuani after the Moroccan city ofTétouan since many Orani Jews came from there. In Israel, the language is known asSpanyolit orEspanyolit.[17]: 325 The namesDjidio,Kasteyano Muestro, andSpanyol de mozotros have also been proposed to refer to the language;[18] regional names to refer to the language includekastiyano viejo,sepharadit,ekseris romeka,yahudije, andmusevije.[19]: 98
An entry inEthnologue claims, "The name 'Judesmo' is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews and American Jews; 'Judeo-Spanish' by Romance philologists; 'Ladino' by laymen, initially in Israel; 'Haketia' by Moroccan Jews; 'Spanyol' by some others."[1] That does not reflect the historical usage. In the Judaeo-Spanish press of the 19th and 20th centuries the native authors referred to the language almost exclusively asEspanyol, which was also the name that its native speakers spontaneously gave to it for as long as it was their primary spoken language. More rarely, the bookishJudeo-Espanyol has also been used since the late 19th century.[20]
In recent decades in Israel, followed by the United States and Spain, the language has come to be referred to asLadino (Ladino:לאדינו), literally meaning 'Latin'. This name for the language was promoted by theAutoridad Nasionala del Ladino. However, speakers of the language in Israel referred to their mother tongue asEspanyolit orSpanyolit. Native speakers of the language consider the nameLadino to be incorrect, having for centuries reserved the term for the "semi-sacred" language used in word-by-word translations from the Bible, which is distinct from the spokenvernacular.[8] According to linguistPaul Wexler, Ladino is a written language that developed in the eighteenth century and is distinct from spoken Judeo-Spanish.[21] According to the website of theJewish Museum of Thessaloniki, the cultural center of Sephardic Judaism after the expulsion from Spain,
Ladino is not spoken, rather, it is the product of a word-for-word translation of Hebrew or Aramaic biblical or liturgical texts made by rabbis in the Jewish schools of Spain. In these translations, a specific Hebrew or Aramaic word always corresponded to the same Spanish word, as long as no exegetical considerations prevented this. In short, Ladino is only Hebrew clothed in Spanish, or Spanish with Hebrew syntax. The famous Ladino translation of the Bible, theBiblia de Ferrara (1553), provided inspiration for the translation of numerous Spanish Christian Bibles.[8]
The derivation of the nameLadino is complicated. Before theexpulsion of Jews from Spain, the word meant "literary Spanish" as opposed to other dialects,[citation needed] or "Romance" distinct from Arabic.[22] One derivation has Ladino as derived from the verbenladinar, meaning "to translate", from when Jews, Christians and Arabs translated works from Hebrew, Greek, and Arabic into Spanish during the times ofAlfonso X of Castile.[19]: 97 (The first European language grammar and dictionary, of Spanish referred to it asladino orladina. In theMiddle Ages, the wordLatin was frequently used to mean simply 'language', particularly one understood: alatiner orlatimer meant a translator.) Following the Expulsion, Jews spoke of "the Ladino" to mean the word-for-word translation of the Bible into Old Spanish. By extension, it came to mean that style of Spanish generally in the same way that (amongKurdish Jews)Targum has come to refer toJudeo-Aramaic languages andArab Jews,sharḥ has come to meanJudeo-Arabic.[citation needed]
Judaeo-SpanishLadino should not be confused with theLadin language (Italian:ladino), spoken in part ofNortheast Italy. Ladin has nothing to do with Jews or with Spanish beyond being a Romance language, a property that it shares with French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian.
At the time of the expulsion from Spain, the day-to-day language of the Jews of different regions of the peninsula was hardly, if at all, different from that of their Christian neighbours. There may have been some dialect mixing to form a sort of Jewish lingua franca. There was, however, a special style of Spanish used for purposes of study or translation, featuring a more archaic dialect, a large number of Hebrew andAramaic loanwords and a tendency to render Hebrew word order literally (hal-layla haz-ze "this night" was renderedla noche la esta instead of the normal Spanishesta noche[23]). As mentioned above, authorities confine the termLadino to that style.[24]
Following theExpulsion of Jews from Spain, the process of dialect mixing continued, but Castilian Spanish remained by far the largest contributor. The daily language was increasingly influenced by both the language of study and the local non-Jewish vernaculars, such as Greek and Turkish. It came to be known asJudesmo and, in that respect, the development is parallel to that ofYiddish. However, many speakers, especially among community leaders, also had command of a more formal style, "castellano", which was closer to the Spanish at the time of the Expulsion.
The grammar, the phonology, and about 60% of the vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish is essentially Spanish but, in some respects, it resembles the dialects in southern Spain and South America, rather than the dialects of Central Spain. For example, it hasyeísmo ("she" iseya/ella[ˈeja] (Judaeo-Spanish), instead ofella) as well asseseo.
In many respects, it reproduces the Spanish of the time of the Expulsion, rather than the modern variety, as it retains some archaic features such as the following:
Modern Spanishj, pronounced[x], corresponds to two different phonemes in Old Spanish:x, pronounced/ʃ/, andj, pronounced/ʒ/. Judaeo-Spanish retains the original sounds. Similarly,g beforee ori remains[d͡ʒ] or/ʒ/, not[x].
Contrastbasho ('low' or 'down,' with/ʃ/, modern Spanishbajo) andmujer ('woman' or 'wife,' spelled the same, with/ʒ/).
Modern Spanishz (c beforee ori), pronounced [s] or[θ], like theth in Englishthink, corresponds to two different phonemes in Old Spanish:ç (c beforee ori), pronounced[ts]; andz (in all positions), pronounced[dz]. In Judaeo-Spanish, they are pronounced[s] and[z], respectively.
Contrastkorasón ('heart,' with/s/, modern Spanishcorazón) anddezir ('to say,' with/z/, modern Spanishdecir).
In modern Spanish, the use of the lettersb andv is determined partly based on earlier forms of the language and partly based on Latin etymology. Both letters represent one phoneme, (/b/), realised as[b] or as[β] according to its position. In Judaeo-Spanish,/b/ and/v/ are different phonemes:boz/bɔs/ 'voice' vs.vos/vɔs/ 'you'.v is alabiodental "v," like in English, rather than a bilabial.
However, the phonology of both the consonants and part of the lexicon is, in some respects, closer to Portuguese and Catalan than to modern Spanish. That is explained by direct influence but also because Portuguese, Old Spanish and Catalan retained some of the characteristics of medieval Ibero-Romance languages that Spanish later lost. There was a mutual influence with theJudaeo-Portuguese of thePortuguese Jews.
Contrast Judaeo-Spanishdaínda ('still') with Portugueseainda (Galicianainda oraínda, Asturianaína orenaína) and Spanishaún or the initial consonants in Judaeo-Spanishfija,favla ('daughter,' 'speech'), Portuguesefilha,fala Galicianfilha orfilla,fala, Asturianfía,fala, Aragonesefilla,fabla, Catalanfilla), Spanishhija,habla.It sometimes varied with dialect, as in Judaeo-Spanish popular songs, bothfijo andhijo ('son') are found.
The Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation ofs as "[ʃ]" before a "k" sound or at the end of certain words (such asseis, pronounced[seʃ], for 'six') is shared with Portuguese (as spoken in Portugal, most of Lusophone Asia and Africa, and in a plurality of Brazilian varieties and registers with either partial or total forms of coda |S| palatalization) but not with Spanish.
Like otherJewish vernaculars, Judaeo-Spanish incorporates many Hebrew and Aramaic words, mostly for religious concepts and institutions. Examples arehaham ('rabbi', from Hebrewḥakham) andkal ('synagogue', from Hebrewqahal). Some Judeo-Spanish words of Hebrew or Aramaic origin have more poetic connotations than their Spanish equivalents. Comparegaava ('pride, arrogance') from Hebrewga'avá witharrogansya ('arrogance') from Spanisharrogancia.
The majority of Judaeo-Spanish speaking people resided in theOttoman Empire, although a large minority on the northern Coast ofMorocco andAlgeria existed. As such, words of Turkish origin were incorporated into the local dialect of the language. Examples includeemrenear ('rejoice') from Turkishimrenmek.
Some of these words themselves were inherited into Turkish from Arabic or Persian. Examples includebilbiliko ('nightingale'), from Persian (via Turkish)bülbül andgam ('sorrow, anxiety, grief') from Arabic (via Persian then Turkish)ġamm.
The Turkish agentive suffix-ci (denoting a profession) was borrowed into Judaeo-Spanish as the suffix-djí. It can be found in words likehalvadjí ('candyman'), derived fromhalva +-djí.
Due to the influence of theAlliance Israélite Universelle in the westernization and modernization of Judaeo-Spanish speaking communities, many words of French origin were adopted. Most of these words refer to Western European innovations and introductions. Examples include:abazur ('lampshade'), from Frenchabat-jour,fardate ('apply makeup'), from Frenchse farder, andfusil ('gun') from Frenchfusil.[25] Some French political and cultural elements are present in Judaeo-Spanish. For example,ir al Bismark ('to go to the Bismark') was a phrase used in some Judaeo-Spanish communities in the late 20th century to mean 'to go to the restroom', referring to theGerman Chancellor,Otto von Bismarck (an unpopular figure in France), as a euphemism for toilet.[25]
Because of the large number of Arabic words in Spanish generally, it is not always clear whether some of these words were introduced before the Expulsion or adopted later; modern Spanish replaced some of these loans withLatinisms after theReconquista, where Judaeo-Spanish speakers had no motivation to do so. Some Arabic words were borrowed via Turkish or Persian.
Judeao-Spanish speaking communities often incorporated words or phrases from surrounding languages.Greek,South Slavic,Italian, andRomanian borrowings can be found in those respective communities.[26]
Judaeo-Spanish speaking communities in the Mediterranean
A common way of dividing Judaeo-Spanish is by splitting firstHaketia, or "Western Judaeo-Spanish", from other varieties, collectively referred to as "Eastern Judaeo-Spanish".[27] Within Eastern Judaeo-Spanish, further division is made based on city of origin.[28]
Aldina Quintana split Eastern Ladino into three groups:
Grupo noroccidental (Northwest group), centered aroundSarajevo (Bosnia). It also includes the dialects ofBitola (Macedonia) andKastoria (Greece). The most distinct characteristics of this group are: the reduction of/r/ and/ɾ/ into/ɾ/ and the conservation of⟨rd⟩ as in⟨gordo⟩.
Grupo nororiental (Northeast group) that includes most of (northern) Bulgaria and Romania includingSofia andBucharest. It represented an intermediate state between the other varieties: the reduction of/r/ and/ɾ/ into/ɾ/, but the metathesis of⟨rd⟩ into⟨dr⟩ as in⟨godro⟩.
Grupo suroriental (Southeast group) that included the main Sephardic cultural hubs ofSalonika (Greece) andIstanbul (Turkiye), as well as the remainder of Anatolia, and Eastern Greece. The varieties of this group maintain the gradient in difference between/e:i/ and/o:u/ in the final position, as well as maintaining a difference between/r/:/ɾ/. The metathesis of⟨rd⟩ into⟨dr⟩ is also present.[29]
While unsorted, the variety of spoken in Judeo-Spanish inItaly (Venice,Trieste,Ferrera) andBudapest more closely followed the Northwest group. Egyptian Judeo-Spanish (Alexandria,Cairo) followed more the patterns of the Southeast Group. Levantine Judeo-Spanish (Jerusalem,Jaffa,Hebron) andRhodesli Judeo-Spanish represented intermediate states, more similar to the Northeast group. Although Levantine Judeo-Spanish phonology and syntax, especially its usage of[ħ],[ʕ],[ʔ], and[h] was unique enough to be defined separately.
Differences between varieties usually includephonology andlexicon. The dialect spoken in theMacedonian city ofBitola (traditionally referred to as Monastir) has relatively many lexical differences as compared with other varieties of Judeao-Spanish.[25] An example of this can be seen is the word for 'carriage'. In many dialects, such as those that were spoken inIstanbul andThessaloniki,araba is used, a loanword from Arabic via Turkish, while the Monastir dialect useskarrose, possibly from Italian.[25] The dialect spoken in theGreek island ofRhodes has the unique difference that when a word ends witho, it is pronounced asu.[30]
As exemplified in the Sources section above, much of the phonology of Judaeo-Spanish is similar to that of standard modern Spanish. Here are some exceptions:
It is claimed that, unlike all other non-creole varieties of Spanish, Judaeo-Spanish does not contrast the trill/r/ and the tap/flap/ɾ/.[33] However, that claim is not universally accepted.[34]
The Spanish/nue-/ is/mue-/ in some dialects of Judaeo-Spanish:nuevo, nuestro →muevo, muestro.[33]
The Judaeo-Spanish phoneme inventory includes separate[d͡ʒ] and[ʒ]:jurnal/ʒuɾˈnal/ ('newspaper') vsjugar/djugar/d͡ʒuˈgar/ ('to play'). Neither phoneme is used in modern Spanish,[33] where they have been replaced by thejota [x]:jornal/xor'nal/,jugar/xu'gar/.
While Spanish pronounces bothb andv as/b/ ([b] or[β]), Judeo-Spanish distinguishes between the two, withb representing[b~β] andv representing[v]:bivir/biˈviɾ/ ('to live').
Judaeo-Spanish has (at least in some varieties) little or no diphthongization of tonic vowels, e.g. in the following lullaby:
(Judaeo-Spanish text)Durme, durme, kerido ijiko, [...]Serra tus lindos ojikos, [...]
(Equivalent Spanish)Duerme, duerme, querido hijito, [...]Cierra tus lindos ojitos, [...]
(Translation)Sleep, Sleep, beloved little son, [...] close your beautiful little eyes, [...]
There is a tendency to drop[s] at the end of a word or syllable, as inAndalusian Spanish and many other Spanish dialects in Spain and the Americas:amargasteis ->amargátex/amargatesh ('you have embittered').
The formDios ->Dio ('God') is sometimes explained as an example of dropping the final[s], or more often as an example offolk etymology: taking thes as a plural ending (which it is not) and attributing it to Christiantrinitarianism. Thus, removing thes supposedly produced a more clearly monotheistic word for God. This is probably a folk etymology, however, asdio is an Old Spanish alternative spelling ofdios, the former derived from the Latin accusative formdeum and the latter from the nominative formdeus.
Judaeo-Spanish is distinguished from other Spanish dialects by the presence of the following features:
Judaeo-Spanish maintains the second-personpronounstú/tu (informal singular),vos (formal singular) andvosotros/vozotros (plural); the third-personél/ella/ellos/ellas/el/eya/eyos/eyas are also used in the formal register.[33] The Spanish pronounsusted andustedes do not exist.
In verbs, thepreterite indicates that an action taken once in the past was also completed at some point in the past. That is as opposed to theimperfect, which refers to any continuous, habitual, unfinished or repetitive past action. Thus, "I ate falafel yesterday" would use the first-person preterite form of 'eat',comí/komí but "When I lived in İzmir, I ran five miles every evening" would use the first-person imperfect form,corría/koria. Though some of the morphology has changed, usage is just as in normative Spanish.
In general, Judaeo-Spanish uses the Spanish plural morpheme /-(e)s/. The Hebrew plural endings/-im/ and/-ot/ are used with Hebrewloanwords, as well as with a few words from Spanish:ladrón/ladron ('thief'):ladrones, ladronim;hermano/ermano ('brother'):hermanos/hermanim / ermanos/ermanim.[35] Similarly, some loaned feminine nouns ending in-á can take either the Spanish or Hebrew plural:quehilá/keilá ('synagogue'):quehilás/quehilot / keilas/keilot.
Judaeo-Spanish contains more gendering cases than standard Spanish, prominently in adjectives, (grande/-a,inferior/-ra) as well as in nouns (vozas, fuentas) and in the interrogativequalo/quala / kualo/kuala.[33]
Judaeo-Spanish follows Spanish for most of itssyntax. (That is not true of the written calque language involving word-for-word translations from Hebrew, which scholars refer to as "Ladino", as described above.) Like Spanish, it generally follows a subject–verb–objectword order, has anominative-accusative alignment, and is considered afusional orinflected language.
TheRashi script, originally used to print the language
Two Israeli organizations, theAkademia Nasionala del Ladino and theAutoridad Nasionala del Ladino, jointly regulate Judaeo-Spanish orthography. The organizations allow speakers to choose between theHebrew script, which was historically the most prevalent writing system for the language, and theLatin script, which gained prominence after the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
Printed works in Judæo-Spanish use theRashi script, whereas the handwritten language uses a cursive form of the Hebrew alphabet calledSolitreo. In the Hebrew script, a silent⟨א⟩ must precede word-initial vowels. Moreover, it is necessary to separate adjacent vowels with⟨א⟩ or⟨י⟩. Whereas⟨א⟩ can separate any pair of vowels,⟨י⟩ can only separate front vowels (/i/ and/e/, both represented by⟨י⟩) from adjacent vowels. Furthermore,⟨י⟩ cannot separate diphthongs that include a non-syllabic/u/ ([w]).
Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and morphemes (except those that were borrowed indirectly through other languages) are spelled according toHebrew orthography. The rest of the language's lexicon is spelled as illustrated in the following table:
Though⟨ני⟩ is usually a digraph, as inאינייבﬞיinyeve 'snow,' it may also be a sequence of two letters, as inאינגﬞיניירוindjeniero 'engineer.' When it precedes⟨י⟩, it is typically a digraph.
When it precedes a front vowel (/i/ or/e/, both represented by⟨י⟩),/ɲ/ is represented by the digraph⟨ני⟩ (see⟨ניי⟩).
ניי
Before central and back vowels (/a/,/o/, and/u/), usually/ɲ/, though sometimes/n+j/
/ɲe/ otherwise
Though⟨ניי⟩ is usually a trigraph, as inאנייוanyo 'year,' it may also represent a sequence of two phonemes,/n+j/ or/ɲ+e/, as inגﬞונייוdjunio 'June' orאינייטוinyeto 'grandson,' respectively. When it precedes central and back vowels (/a/,/o/ and/u/), it is typically a trigraph.
This orthography uses aninterpunct⟨·⟩ to distinguish the sequence/s+x/ (written⟨s·h⟩) from the/ʃ/ phoneme (written⟨sh⟩). Writers may also use acute accents to mark irregular stress. The regular stress pattern is as follows:
Words that end with a vowel or with/n/,/s/, or/ʃ/ are paroxytones.
Words that end with any other consonant are oxytones.
In Turkey, Judaeo-Spanish was most commonly written in theTurkish variant of theLatin alphabet. That may have been the most widespread system in use prior to the adoption of the official orthography, as following the decimation of Sephardic communities throughout much of Europe (particularly in Greece and theBalkans) duringthe Holocaust, the greatest proportion of speakers remaining were Turkish Jews.
Works published in Spain usually adopted the standard orthography of modern Spanish to make them easier for modern Spanish speakers to read.[38] The editions often used diacritics to show where the Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation differs from modern Spanish.
Pablo Carvajal Valdés and others suggested adopting the orthography that was used at the time of the Expulsion
In the medievalIberian Peninsula, now Spain and Portugal, Jews spoke a variety of Romance dialects.Jews in the Middle Ages were instrumental in the development of Spanish into aprestige language. Erudite Jews translated Arabic and Hebrew works, often translated earlier from Greek, into Spanish. Christianstranslated them again into Latin for transmission to Europe.
Following the 1490s expulsion from Spainand Portugal, most of the Iberian Jews resettled in theOttoman Empire. Jews in the OttomanBalkans,Western Asia (especially Turkey), andNorth Africa (especiallyMorocco) developed their own Romance dialects, with some influence from Hebrew and other languages, which became what is now known as Judaeo-Spanish. Until recent times, the language was widely spoken throughout the Balkans, Turkey/Western Asia and North Africa, as Judaeo-Spanish had been brought there by the Jewish refugees.[39] Later on, many Portuguese Jews also escaped to France, Italy, theNetherlands andEngland, establishing small groups in those nations as well, but these spokeEarly Modern Spanish or Portuguese rather than Judaeo-Spanish. The contact among Jews of different regions and languages, includingCatalan,Leonese andPortuguese developed a unified dialect, differing in some aspects from the Spanish norm that was forming simultaneously in Spain, but some of the mixing may have already occurred in exile rather than in the Iberian Peninsula.
In the 16th century, the development Judeo-Spanish was significantly influenced by the extensive mobility of Sephardic Jews. By the end of the century, Spanish had become the dominant language of commerce for Sephardic communities across Italy and the eastern Mediterranean.[40] This standardization was further supported by practices such as hiring tutors to teach Castilian inHebrew script, as noted in a 1600 deposition fromPisa. Additionally, itinerant rabbis who preached in the vernacular contributed to the spread and standardization of Judeo-Spanish among diverse Sephardic congregations, including those inGreek- andArabic-speaking regions.[40]
The closeness and mutual comprehensibility between Judaeo-Spanish and Spanish favoured trade among Sephardim, often relatives, from the Ottoman Empire to the Netherlands and theconversos of the Iberian Peninsula.
Over time, a corpus of literature, both liturgical and secular, developed. Early literature was limited to translations from Hebrew. At the end of the 17th century, Hebrew was disappearing as the vehicle for rabbinic instruction. Thus, a literature appeared in the 18th century, such asMe'am Lo'ez and poetry collections. By the end of the 19th century, the Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire studied in schools of theAlliance Israélite Universelle. French became the language for foreign relations, as it did forMaronites, and Judaeo-Spanish drew from French for neologisms. New secular genres appeared, with more than 300 journals, history, theatre, and biographies.
Given the relative isolation of many communities, a number of regional dialects of Judaeo-Spanish appeared, many with only limited mutual comprehensibility, largely because of the adoption of large numbers of loanwords from the surrounding populations, including, depending on the location of the community, from Greek, Turkish, Arabic and, in theBalkans,Slavic languages, especiallySerbo-Croatian andBulgarian. The borrowing in many Judaeo-Spanish dialects is so heavy that up to 30% of their vocabulary is of non-Spanish origin. Some words also passed from Judaeo-Spanish into neighbouring languages. For example, the wordpalavra 'word' (Vulgar Latinparabola; Greekparabole), passed into Turkish, Greek and Romanian[41] with the meaning 'bunk, hokum, humbug, bullshit' in Turkish and Romanian and 'big talk, boastful talk' in Greek (compare the English wordpalaver).
The language was known asYahudice (Jewish language) in the Ottoman Empire. In the late 18th century, Ottoman poet Enderunlu Fazıl (Fazyl bin Tahir Enderuni) wrote in hisZenanname: "Castilians speak the Jewish language but they are not Jews."
Nuevo Silibaryo Espanyol. Judaeo-Spanish textbook,Salonica, 1929
Judaeo-Spanish was the common language ofSalonica during the Ottoman period. The city became part of Greece in 1912 and was subsequently renamed Thessaloniki. Despite theGreat Fire of Thessaloniki and mass settlement of Christian refugees, the language remained widely spoken in Salonica until the deportation of 50,000 Salonican Jews in the Holocaust during theSecond World War. According to the 1928 census, the language had 62,999 native speakers in Greece. The figure drops down to 53,094 native speakers in 1940, but 21,094 citizens "usually" spoke the language.[42] The language was so prominent in Salonica that the most prestigious monument of the city was known by its Judeo-Spanish name,Las Incantadas (meaning "the enchanted women").[43]
Judaeo-Spanish was also a language used inDonmeh rites (Dönme being a Turkish word for 'convert' to refer to adepts ofSabbatai Tsevi converting to Islam in the Ottoman Empire). An example isSabbatai Tsevi esperamos a ti. Today, the religious practices and the ritual use of Judaeo-Spanish seems confined to elderly generations.
The Castilian colonisation of Northern Africa favoured the role of polyglot Sephards, who bridged between Spanish colonizers and Arab and Berber speakers.
From the 17th to the 19th centuries, Judaeo-Spanish was the predominant Jewish language in the Holy Land, but its dialect was different in some respects from the one in Greece and Turkey. Some families have lived in Jerusalem for centuries and preserve Judaeo-Spanish for cultural and folklore purposes although they now use Hebrew in everyday life.
An often-told Sephardic anecdote fromBosnia-Herzegovina has it that as a Spanish consulate was opened inSarajevo in theinterwar period, two Sephardic women passed by. Upon hearing a Catholic priest who was speaking Spanish, they thought that his language meant that he was Jewish.[7]
In the 20th century, the number of speakers declined sharply: entire communities were murdered in the Holocaust, and many of the remaining speakers, many of whom emigrated to Israel, adopted Hebrew. The government of the newnation-state encouraged instruction in Hebrew. Similarly in the US, Sephardic Jews were encouraged to speak English rather than Judaeo-Spanish, therefore, the language was not passed down to younger generations.[44] In Turkey, where there is a large community of Sephardic Jews, Judaeo-Spanish was considered a language of little prestige; additionally, parents refused to teach their children the language, fearing that their children would develop a "Jewish accent" and therefore face discrimination.[45] At the same time, Judaeo-Spanish aroused the interest of philologists, as it conserved language and literature from before the standardisation of Spanish.
Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction. As of 2011, the majority of fluent speakers are over the age of 70; the descendants of these speakers exhibit little to no knowledge of the language.[44] Nevertheless, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music. In addition, Sephardic communities in several Latin American countries still use Judaeo-Spanish. There, the language is exposed to the different danger of assimilation to modern Spanish.
Efforts have been made to gather and publish modern Judaeo-Spanish fables and folktales. In 2001, theJewish Publication Society published the first English translation of Judaeo-Spanish folktales, collected byMatilda Koen-Sarano,Folktales of Joha, Jewish Trickster: The Misadventures of the Guileful Sephardic Prankster. A survivor ofAuschwitz,Moshe Ha-Elion, issued his translation into Judeo-Spanish of the ancient Greek epicOdyssey in 2012, in his 87th year,[48] and later completed a translation of the sister epic, theIliad, into his mother tongue.
The first printed Judaeo-Spanish book wasMe-'am lo'ez in 1730. It was a commentary on the Bible in the Judaeo-Spanish language. Most Jews in the Ottoman Empire knew the Hebrew alphabet but did not speak Hebrew. The printing ofMe-'am lo'ez marked the emergence of large-scale printing activity in Judaeo-Spanish in the western Ottoman Empire and in Istanbul in particular.[49] The earliest Judaeo-Spanish books were religious in nature, mostly created to maintain religious knowledge for exiles who could not read Hebrew; the first of the known texts isDinim de shehitah i bedikah [The Rules of Ritual Slaughter and Inspection of Animals]; (Istanbul, 1510).[50] Texts continued to be focussed on philosophical and religious themes, including a large body of rabbinic writings, until the first half of the 19th century. The largest output of secular Judaeo-Spanish literature occurred during the latter half of the 19th and the early 20th centuries in the Ottoman Empire. The earliest and most abundant form of secular text was the periodical press: between 1845 and 1939, Ottoman Sephardim published around 300 individual periodical titles.[51] The proliferation of periodicals gave rise to serialised novels: many of them were rewrites of existing foreign novels into Judaeo-Spanish. Unlike the previous scholarly literature, they were intended for a broader audience of educated men and less-educated women alike. They covered a wider range of less weighty content, at times censored to be appropriate for family readings.[52] Popular literature expanded to include love stories and adventure stories, both of which had been absent from Judaeo-Spanish literary canon.[53] The literary corpus meanwhile also expanded to include theatrical plays, poems and other minor genres.
Multiple documents made by the Ottoman government were translated into Judaeo-Spanish; usually translators used terms from Ottoman Turkish.[54]
The Jewish communities ofSarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, andBelgrade,Serbia, still chant part of the Sabbath Prayers (Mizmor David) in Judaeo-Spanish. The Sephardic Synagogue Ezra Bessaroth inSeattle, Washington, United States, was formed by Jews from Turkey and the Greek island ofRhodes, and it uses the language in some portions of itsShabbat services. TheSiddur is called Zehut Yosef and was written by Hazzan Isaac Azose.
At Congregation Etz Ahaim ofHighland Park, New Jersey,[55] a congregation founded by Sephardic Jews fromSalonika, a reader chants theAramaic prayerB'rikh Shemay in Judaeo-Spanish before he takes out theTorah onShabbat. That is known asBendichu su Nombre in Judaeo-Spanish. Additionally, at the end of Shabbat services, the entire congregation sings the well-known Hebrew hymnEin Keloheinu, which isNon Como Muestro Dio in Judaeo-Spanish.
Non Como Muestro Dio is also included, alongsideEin Keloheinu, inMishkan T'filah, the 2007Reform prayerbook.[56]
El Dio Alto (El Dyo Alto) is a Sephardic hymn often sung during the Havdalah service, its currently popular tune arranged byJudy Frankel.[57]Hazzan Isaac Azose, cantor emeritus of Synagogue Ezra Bessaroth and second-generation Turkish immigrant, has performed an alternative Ottoman tune.[58]
In 1967, linguistHaïm Vidal Séphiha of theUniversity of Paris became the first professor of Judaeo-Spanish in the world; courses of Judaeo-Spanish have been introduced in universities since then in other European countries, along with research centers dedicated to the study of the language.[61] TheNational Authority of Ladino, dedicated to the study and promotion of Judaeo-Spanish was established in Jerusalem in 1997.[44]
As with Yiddish,[62][63] Judaeo-Spanish is seeing a minor resurgence in educational interest in colleges across the United States and in Israel.[64] Almost allAmerican Jews areAshkenazi, with a tradition based on Yiddish, rather than Judaeo-Spanish, and so institutions that offer Yiddish are more common. As of 2011[update] theUniversity of Pennsylvania[65][66] andTufts University[67] offered Judaeo-Spanish courses among colleges in the United States;INALCO in Paris, theUniversity of the Basque Country andUniversity of Granada in Spain were offering courses as well.[44][68] In Israel, Moshe David Gaon Center for Ladino Culture atBen-Gurion University of the Negev is leading the way in education (language and literature courses, Community oriented activities) and research (a yearly scientific journal, international congresses and conferences etc.).Hebrew University also offers courses.[69] TheComplutense University of Madrid also used to have courses.[70] Prof.David Bunis taught Judaeo-Spanish at theUniversity of Washington, in Seattle during the 2013–14 academic year.[71] Bunis returned to the University of Washington for the Summer 2020 quarter.[72]
In Spain, theSpanish Royal Academy (RAE) in 2017 announced plans to create a Judaeo-Spanish branch in Israel in addition to 23 existing academies, in various Spanish-speaking countries, that are associated in theAssociation of Spanish Language Academies. Its stated purpose is to preserve Judaeo-Spanish. The move was seen as another step to make up for the Expulsion, following theoffer of Spanish citizenship to Sephardim who had some connection with Spain.[5]
When French-medium schools operated byAlliance Israelite Universelle opened in theOttoman Empire in the 1860s, the position of Judaeo-Spanish began to weaken in the Ottoman Empire areas. In time Judaeo-Spanish became perceived as a low status language,[73] and Sephardic people began losing connections to that language.[74] Esther Benbassa and Aron Rodrigue, authors ofSephardi Jewry: A History of the Judeo-Spanish Community, 14th-20th Centuries, wrote that the AIU institutions "gallicized" people who attended.[75] As time progressed, Judaeo-Spanish language and culture declined. Although Mary Altabev in 1994 observed limited use of Ladino at home among educated Turkish Jews,Melis Alphan wrote inHürriyet in 2017 that the Judaeo-Spanish language in Turkey was heading to extinction.[44][73]
As of 2023[update] the Ladino supplement ofŞalom is the sole monthly newspaper in Ladino.[76]El Amaneser is the sole all Ladino newspaper.[77]
איל גﬞודיאו־איספאנײול איס לה לינגואה פﬞאבﬞלאדה די לוס גﬞודיוס ספﬞרדים ארונגﬞאדוס די לה איספאנײה איניל 1492. איס אונה לינגואה דיריבﬞאדה דיל איספאנײול או איל קאסטעייאנו אי פﬞאבﬞלאדה די 150,000 פירסונאס אין קומוניטאס אין ישראל, לה טורקײה, אנטיקה יוגוסלאבﬞײה, לה גריסײה, איל מארואיקוס, מאיורקה, לה אמעריקא, אינטרי מונגﬞוס אוטרוס לוגאריס.
El djudeo-espanyol es la lingua favlada de los djudios sefardim arondjados de la Espanya enel 1492. Es una lingua derivada del espanyol o el kasteyano i favlada de 150.000 personas en komunitas en Israel, la Turkia, antika Yugoslavia, la Gresia, el Maruekos, Mayorka, la Amerika, entre munchos otros lugares.
Castilian-inspired orthography
El judeoespañol es la lingua fablada de los judiós sefaradim arronjados de la España en el 1492. Es una lingua derivada del español/casteyano y fablada de 150.000 personas en comunitás en Israel, la Turquía, antica Yugoslavia, la Grecia, el Marruecos, Mayorca, (las) América(s), entre munchos otros lugares.
El judeoespañol es la lengua hablada por los judíos sefardíes expulsados[note 2] de España en 1492. Es una lengua derivada del español/castellano y hablada por 150.000 personas en comunidades en Israel, Turquía, la antigua Yugoslavia, Grecia, Marruecos, Mallorca, (las) América(s), entre muchos otros lugares.
El xudeoespañol ye la llingua falada polos xudíos sefardinos espulsaos d'España en 1492. Ye una llingua derivada del español/castellanu y falada por 150.000 persones en comunidaes n'Israel, Turquía, na antigua Yugoslavia, Grecia, Marruecos, Mallorca, América/nes Amériques, ente munchos otros llugares.
O xudeo-español é a lingua falada polos xudeus sefardís expulsados de España en 1492. É unha lingua derivada do español/castelán e falada por 150.000 persoas en comunidades en Israel, Turquía, antiga Iugoslavia, Grecia, Marrocos, Maiorca, América(s), entre moitos outros lugares.
Reintegrationist
O judeu-espanhol é a língua falada polos judeus sefardis espulsados de Espanha em 1492. É uma língua derivada do espanhol/castelão/castelhano e falada por 150.000 pessoas em comunidades em Israel, Turquia, antiga Iugoslávia, Grécia, Marrocos, Maiorca, América(s), entre muitos outros lugares.
O judeu-espanhol é a língua falada pelos judeus sefardis/sefarditas expulsos de Espanha em 1492. É uma língua derivada do espanhol/castelhano e falada por 150.000 pessoas em comunidades em Israel, na Turquia, na antiga Jugoslávia, na Grécia, em Marrocos, em Maiorca, na(s) América(s), entre muitos outros lugares.
Brazilian
O judeu-espanhol é a língua falada pelos judeus sefardis/sefarditas expulsos da Espanha em 1492. É uma língua derivada do espanhol/castelhano e falada por 150.000 pessoas em comunidades em Israel, na Turquia, na ex-Iugoslávia, na Grécia, no/em Marrocos, em Maiorca, na(s) América(s), entre muitos outros lugares.
O chodigo-espanyol ye la luenga parlata por os chodigos sefardís expulsats d'Espanya en 1492. Ye una luenga derivata de l'espanyol/del castellano i parlata por 150.000 personas en comunitatz en Israel, Turquía, l'antiga Yugoslavia, Grecia, Marruecos, Mallorca, (las) América(s), entre muitos atros lugares.
El judeoespanyol és la llengua parlada pels jueus sefardites expulsats d'Espanya al 1492. És una llengua derivada de l'espanyol/del castellà i parlada per 150.000 persones en comunitats a Israel, Turquia, l'antiga Iugoslàvia, Grècia, el Marroc, Mallorca, Amèrica/les Amèriques, entre molts altres llocs.
Lo judeoespanhol es la lenga parlada pels jusieus sefarditas expulsats d'Espanha en 1492. Es una lenga venent de l'espanhòu/del castelhan que 150 000 personas la parlan dins de comunautats en Israèl, Turquia, èx-Iogoslavia, Grècia, Marròc, Malhòrca, (las) America(s), entre fòrça autres luòcs.
English
Judaeo-Spanish is the language spoken by Sephardic Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. It is a language derived from Spanish and spoken by 150,000 people in communities in Israel, Turkey, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, Morocco, Majorca, the Americas, among many other places.
A tradition dating back to at least the 16th century exists of translatingpiyyutim into Judaeo-Spanish. Fragments fromkinnot in Judeo-Spanish from probably the 16th century have been found.[78]: 84 It is known that certain women, known asendechederas ("singers of dirges") would attend funerals to singendechas (dirges), however, none of theseendechas are known to have survived.[78]: 90
A tradition of ballads, orromansas, also exists in the Judeo-Spanish tradition, and were predominantly sung by women.[79] Their original purpose was to transmit news; later they became work songs as well as entertainment. They covered a wide range of topics, from childbirth to marriage to death; they could also cover secular topics, such as unhappily married women, incest, violence, and single mothers. In one ballad, a pregnant princess pretends to her mother that she is not pregnant, but rather has indigestion, then proceeds to give birth to her fourth child.[79]
Folklorists have been collectingromances and other folk songs, some dating from before the expulsion. Many religious songs in Judaeo-Spanish are translations of Hebrew, usually with a different tune.[citation needed] For example, here isEin Keloheinu in Judaeo-Spanish:
Non komo muestro Dio, Non komo muestro Sinyor, Non komo muestro Rey, Non komo muestro Salvador. etc.
Other songs relate to secular themes such as love:
Adio, kerida
Goodbye, My Love (translation)
Tu madre kuando te pario Y te kito al mundo, Korason ella no te dio Para amar segundo. Korason ella no te dió Para amar segundo.
Adio, Adio kerida, No kero la vida, Me l'amargates tu. Adio, Adio kerida, No kero la vida, Me l'amargates tu.
Va, bushkate otro amor, Aharva otras puertas, Aspera otro ardor, Ke para mi sos muerta. Aspera otro ardor, Ke para mi sos muerta.
Adio, Adio kerida, No kero la vida, Me l'amargates tu. Adio, Adio kerida, No kero la vida, Me l'amargates tú.
When your mother gave birth to you And brought you into the world She gave you no heart To love another. She gave you no heart To love another.
Farewell, Farewell my love, I no longer want my life You made it bitter for me Farewell, Farewell my love, I no longer want my life You made it bitter for me
Go, find yourself another lover, Knock at other doors, Wait for another passion For you are dead to me Wait for another passion For you are dead to me
Farewell, Farewell my love, I no longer want my life You made it bitter for me Farewell, Farewell my love, I no longer want my life You made it bitter for me
Por una Ninya
For a Girl(translation)
Por una ninya tan fermoza l'alma yo la vo a dar un kuchilyo de dos kortes en el korason entro.
For a girl so beautiful I will give my soul a double-edged knife pierced my heart.
No me mires ke'stó kantando es lyorar ke kero yo los mis males son muy grandes no los puedo somportar.
Don't look at me; I am singing, it is crying that I want, my sorrows are so great I can't bear them.
No te lo kontengas tu, fijika, ke sos blanka komo'l simit, ay morenas en el mundo ke kemaron Selanik.
Don't hold your sorrows, young girl, for you are white like bread, there are dark girls in the world who set fire toThessaloniki.
Quando el Rey Nimrod al campo salía mirava en el cielo y en la estrellería vido una luz santa en ladjudería que havía de nascer Avraham Avinu.
When KingNimrod was going out to the fields He was looking at heaven and at the stars He saw a holy light in the Jewish quarter [A sign] thatAbraham, our father, must have been born.
Avraham Avinu, Padre querido, Padre bendicho, luz de Yisrael.
Abraham Avinu [our Father], dear father Blessed Father, light of Israel.
Luego a las comadres encomendava que toda mujer que prenyada quedara si no pariera al punto, la matara que havía de nascer Abraham Avinu.
Then he was telling all themidwives That every pregnant woman Who did not give birth at once was going to be killed because Abraham our father was going to be born.
Avraham Avinu, Padre querido, Padre bendicho, luz de Yisrael.
Abraham Avinu, dear father Blessed Father, light of Israel.
La mujer de Terach quedó prenyada y de día en día le preguntava ¿De qué teneix la cara tan demudada? ella ya sabía el bien que tenía.
Terach's wife was pregnant and each day he would ask her Why do you look so distraught? She already knew very well what she had.
Avraham Avinu, Padre querido, Padre bendicho, luz de Yisrael.
Abraham Avinu, dear father Blessed Father, light of Israel.
En fin de nueve meses parir quería iva caminando por campos y vinyas, a su marido tal ni le descubría topó una meara, allí lo pariría
After nine months she wanted to give birth She was walking through the fields and vineyards Such would not even reach her husband She found a cave; there, she would give birth.
Avraham Avinu, Padre querido, Padre bendicho, luz de Yisrael.
Abraham Avinu, dear father Blessed Father, light of Israel.
En aquella hora el nascido avlava "Andavos mi madre, de la meara yo ya topó quen me alexara mandará del cielo quen me accompanyará porque so criado del Dio bendicho."
In that hour the newborn was speaking 'Get away of the cave,[80] my mother I will somebody to take me out He will send from the heaven the one that will go with me Because I am raised by the blessed God.'
Avraham Avinu, Padre querido, Padre bendicho, luz de Yisrael
Abraham Avinu, dear father Blessed Father, light of Israel.
Yo era ninya
I Was a Girl(translation)
Yo era ninya de kaza alta No savia de sufrir Por kaer kon ti berbante Me metites a servir
I was a girl from an upper-class family And I never knew of any suffering, Because I fell in love with you, you scoundrel You've brought me misfortune.
Anachronistically, Abraham—who in the Bible is an Aramean and the very first Hebrew and the ancestor of all who followed, hence his appellationAvinu (Our Father)—is in the Judeo-Spanish song born already in thedjudería (modern Spanish:judería), the Jewish quarter. This makes Terach and his wife into Hebrews, as are the parents of other babies killed by Nimrod. In essence, unlike its Biblical model, the song is about a Hebrew community persecuted by a cruel king and witnessing the birth of a miraculous saviour—a subject of obvious interest and attraction to the Jewish people who composed and sang it inmedieval Spain.
The song attributes to Abraham elements that are from the story ofMoses's birth, the cruel king killing innocent babies, with the midwives ordered to kill them, the 'holy light' in the Jewish area, as well as from the careers ofShadrach, Meshach, and Abednego who emerged unscathed from the fiery furnace, andJesus of Nazareth.Nimrod is thus made to conflate the role and attributes of three archetypal cruel and persecuting kings:Nebuchadnezzar andPharaoh andHerod
Jennifer Charles andOren Bloedow from the New York-based bandElysian Fields released a CD in 2001 calledLa Mar Enfortuna, which featured modern versions of traditional Sephardic songs, many sung by Charles in Judeo-Spanish. The American singer Tanja Solnik has released several award-winning albums that feature songs in the languages:From Generation to Generation: A Legacy of Lullabies andLullabies and Love Songs. There are a number of groups in Turkey that sing in Judeo-Spanish, notably Janet – Jak Esim Ensemble, Sefarad, Los Pasharos Sefaradis and the children's chorus Las Estreyikas d'Estambol. There is a Brazilian-born singer of Sephardic origins,Fortuna, who researches and plays Judeo-Spanish music.[81][82]
Israeli folk-duoEsther & Abi Ofarim recorded the song "Yo M'enamori d'un Aire" for their 1968 albumUp To Date.Esther Ofarim recorded several Judaeo-Spanish songs as a solo artist. These included "Povereta Muchachica", "Noches Noches", "El Rey Nimrod", "Adio Querida" and "Pampaparapam".[83]
The Jewish Bosnian-American musicianFlory Jagoda recorded two CDs of music taught to her by her grandmother, a Sephardic folk singer, among a larger discography.[84] Following her death in 2021, gentile musicians in Bosnia have recorded music in Judaeo-Spanish as well.[85]
The cantor Ramón Tasat, who learned Judeo-Spanish at his grandmother's knee inBuenos Aires, has recorded many songs in the language, with three of his CDs focusing primarily on that music.[86]
The Israeli singerYasmin Levy has also brought a new interpretation to the traditional songs by incorporating more "modern" sounds of AndalusianFlamenco. Her work revitalising Sephardic music has earned Levy theAnna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation Award for promoting cross-cultural dialogue between musicians from three cultures:[87] In Yasmin Levy's own words:
I am proud to combine the two cultures of Ladino and flamenco, while mixing in Middle Eastern influences. I am embarking on a 500 years old musical journey, taking Ladino to Andalusia and mixing it with flamenco, the style that still bears the musical memories of the old Moorish and Jewish-Spanish world with the sound of the Arab world. In a way it is a 'musical reconciliation' of history.[88]
Notable music groups performing in Judeo-Spanish includeVoice of the Turtle,Oren Bloedow andJennifer Charles'La Mar Enfortuna andVanya Green, who was awarded aFulbright Fellowship for her research and performance of this music. She was recently selected as one of the top ten world music artists by the We are Listening International World of Music Awards for her interpretations of the music.
Robin Greenstein, a New York-based musician, received a federal CETA grant in the 1980s to collect and perform Sephardic Music under the guidance of the American Jewish Congress. Her mentor was Joe Elias, noted Sephardic singer from Brooklyn. She recorded residents of theSephardic Home for the Aged, a nursing home inConey Island, New York, singing songs from their childhood. The voices recorded included Victoria Hazan, a well known Sephardic singer who recorded many 78's in Judaeo-Spanish and Turkish from the 1930s and 1940s. Two Judaeo-Spanish songs can be found on herSongs of the Season holiday CD, released in 2010 on Windy Records.
German bandIn Extremo also recorded a version of the above-mentioned songAvram Avinu.
The Israeli-German folk bandBaladino has released two albums that have songs with lyrics in Judaeo-Spanish.
^Speakers use different orthographical conventions depending on their social, educational, national and personal backgrounds, and there is no uniformity in spelling although some established conventions exist. TheendonymJudeo-Espagnol is also spelled asCudeo-Espanyol,Djudeo-Espagnol,Djudeo-Espanyol,Dschudeo-Espanjol,Dzhudeo-Espanyol,Džudeo-Espanjol,Dzsudeo-Eszpanyol (Hungary),Dżudeo-Espańol,Giudeo-Espagnol orGiudeo-Espaneol (Italy),Ġudeo-Espanjol,Ǧudéo-Españól,Judeo-Espaniol,Ĵudeo-Español andJudeo-Espanýol,Tzoudeo-Espaniol (Greece),Xhudeo-Espanjol. See the infobox for parallel spellings in scripts other than Latin.
^The direct Spanish cognate of Judaeo-Spanish 'arondjado(s)' is 'arrojado(s)', which has the meaning of 'thrown' and 'kicked-out', but not 'exiled' like its Judaeo-Spanish counterpart.
^Quintana Rodríguez, Alidina (2006).Geografía lingüística del judeoespañol: estudio sincrónico y diacrónico (in Spanish). Peter Lang.ISBN978-3-03910-846-6.
^Minervini, Laura (2006). "El desarollo histórico del judeoespañol" [The historical development of Judeo-Spanish].Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana (in Spanish).
^Travis G. Bradley and Ann Marie Delforge,Phonological Retention and Innovation in the Judeo-Spanish of Istanbul inSelected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium, ed. Timothy L. Face and Carol A. Klee, 73–88. 2006. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
^Sevi, Aldo et. al. (ed.), "Grafía del Djudeo-Espanyol Sigún el Método de Akí Yerushaláyim."Akí Yerushaláyim, no. 113, October 2024, pp. 117-120
^Verba Hispanica X:Los problemas del estudio de la lengua sefardíArchived 7 April 2008 at theWayback Machine, Katja Šmid, Ljubljana, pages 113–124:Es interesante el hecho que en Bulgaria se imprimieron unas pocas publicaciones en alfabeto cirílico búlgaro y en Grecia en alfabeto griego. [...] Nezirović (1992: 128) anota que también en Bosnia se ha encontrado un documento en que la lengua sefardí está escrita en alfabeto cirilico. The Nezirović reference is: Nezirović, M.,Jevrejsko-Španjolska književnost. Institut za književnost, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, Bosnia 1992.
^See preface byIacob M. Hassán to Romero,Coplas Sefardíes, Cordoba, pp. 23–24.
^abRay, Jonathan Stewart (2013).After expulsion: 1492 and the making of Sephardic Jewry. New York: New York University Press. pp. 137–138.ISBN978-0-8147-2911-3.
^Borovaya, Olga (2012).Modern Ladino Culture: Press, Belles Lettres, and Theater in the Late Ottoman Empire. Indiana University Press. p. 7.ISBN978-0-253-35672-7.
^Borovaya, Olga (2012).Modern Ladino Culture: Press, Belles Lettres, and Theater in the Late Ottoman Empire. Indiana University Press. p. 24.ISBN978-0-253-35672-7.
^Borovaya, Olga (2012).Modern Ladino Culture: Press, Belles Lettres, and Theater in the Late Ottoman Empire. Indiana University Press. p. 144.ISBN978-0-253-35672-7.
^Borovaya, Olga (2012).Modern Ladino Culture: Press, Belles Lettres, and Theater in the Late Ottoman Empire. Indiana University Press. p. 191.ISBN978-0-253-35672-7.
^Frishman, Elyse D., ed. (2007).Mishkan T'filah: a Reform siddur: services for Shabbat. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis. p. 327.ISBN978-0-88123-104-5.
^ben Or, David (2016)."El Dio Alto".sefaradizo.org. Archived fromthe original on 17 September 2021. Retrieved17 September 2021.
^Benbassa, Esther; Rodrigue, Aron (13 April 2000).Sephardi Jewry: A History of the Judeo-Spanish Community, 14th-20th Centuries.University of California Press. p. 93.
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