Ajötunn (alsojotun; pluraljötnar; in the normalised scholarly spelling ofOld Norse,jǫtunn/ˈjɔːtʊn/;[2] or, inOld English,eoten, pluraleotenas) is a type of being inGermanic mythology. InNorse mythology,jötnar are often contrasted with gods (theÆsir andVanir) and with other non-human figures, such asdwarfs andelves, although the groupings are not always mutually exclusive. The entities included in thejötunn category are referred to by several other terms, includingrisi,þurs (orthurs) andtroll if male andgýgr ortröllkona if female. Thejötnar typically dwell across boundaries from the gods and humans in lands such asJötunheimr.
Thejötnar are frequently attested throughout the Old Norse records, witheotenas also featuring in the Old English epic poemBeowulf. The usage of the terms is dynamic, with an overall trend that the beings become portrayed as less impressive and more negative asChristianity becomes more influential over time. Although the term "giant" is sometimes used to gloss the word "jötunn" and its apparent synonyms in some translations and academic texts, this is seen as problematic by some scholars asjötnar are not necessarily notably large.
The terms for the beings also have cognates in later folklore such as the Englishyotun, Danishjætte and Finnishjätti which can share some common features - such as being turned to stone in the day and living on the periphery of society.
Old Norse:jötunn andOld Englisheoten developed from theProto-Germanic masculine noun*etunaz.[3]PhilologistVladimir Orel says that semantic connections between*etunaz with Proto-Germanic*etanan ('to eat') makes a relation between the two words likely.[3] The words are cognate withettin, an archaic word for a type of being.[4] Old Norserisi and Old High Germanriso derive from the Proto-Germanic masculine noun*wrisjon. Orel observes that theOld Saxon adjectivewrisi-līk 'enormous' is likely also connected.[5] Old Norseþurs, Old Englishþyrs, and Old High Germanduris 'devil, evil spirit' derive from the Proto-Germanic masculine noun*þur(i)saz, itself derived from Proto-Germanic*þurēnan, which is etymologically connected toSanskritturá- 'strong, powerful, rich'.[6] Several terms are used specifically to refer to female entities that fall into this wider category, includingíviðja (pluralíviðjur),gýgr (pluralgýgjar) andtröllkona (pluraltröllkonur).[7][8][9]
Terms forjötnar are also found in Old Norse compound words such asbergrisi,[10] ("mountain-risi") andhrímþurs ("rime-þurs", or "frost-þurs").[11]
The cognatesjötunn andeoten, andþurs andþyrs have been equated by scholars such asJ. R. R. Tolkien andRudolf Simek, with the words being used to describe the being in eitherOld Norse orOld English respectively.[12][13]
In theEddas,jötnar are beings typically with similar power to the gods and may also be referred to by the negative termstroll andþurs.[14][15] The harmful nature ofþursar is also described in theIcelandic and Norwegian rune poems, where they are identified for causing strife to women.[16][17] Descriptions of the appearance ofjötnar are uncommon; however, the progenitor of thejötnar is described as having the form of a man.[18] Some femalejötnar are described as being beautiful, such asGerðr andHymir's partner, while others are described as monstrous and having many heads.[19] Some dwarfs are described asjötnar such asRegin andFáfnir, while inAlvíssmál, the eponymous dwarf is noted for having the likeness of aþurs.[20]
As the influence of Christianity grew,jötnar becamedemonised and typically portrayed as less intelligent, easier to outwit and more monstrous, as is common with giants in laterGermanic folklore.[21] In some later sagas, such asBárðar saga Snæfellsáss,risar are clearly distinct fromjötnar however in others the terms are used interchangeably, albeit with an overall trend thatjötnar have begun to be seen negatively relative torisar.[15]
Troll has a much wider semantic scope in Old Norse literature than solelyjötnar, also including individuals with unusual or supernatural traits such as witches, abnormally strong, large or ugly people, ghosts andberserkers.[22]
Terms forjötnar are often translated into Modern English as "giant" or "giantess".[20]John Lindow uses the glosses to contrast them with the gods but notes that they are not giant, being similar in size to the gods, and are best conceived of as a kin or family group, separated by relation rather than physical appearance.[23] Due to this issue, some scholars such as Terry Gunnell,Jeramy Dodds andBenjamin Thorpe either anglicise or leave untranslated terms forjötnar in translations and academic work.[24][25][26]
In a stanza ofVöluspá hin skamma (found in the poem "Hyndluljóð"), alljötnar descend fromYmir.[36]Gylfaginning elaborates on this, describing that the primordialjötunn Ymir formed in the warm waters that arose inGinnungagap when the rime ofNiflheim was melted by the heat ofMuspelheim. He lay there asleep, fed by milk fromAuðumbla, whereupon from his left armpit he sweated a male and a female, and his legs begat a son with one another. Together, these children became the ancestors of all otherjötnar.[35][37]
Later, he was killed by the firstgods, resulting in aflood of Ymir's blood, in which alljötnar drowned exceptBergelmir and his family, who survive this event by way of sailing upon aluðr.[38] This has been linked to arunic inscription on a sword hilt inBeowulf which describes theeotenas being killed in an ancient flood and has been proposed to derive fromGermanic and widerIndo-European mythology.[39][40][41]
According toGylfaginning, after Ymir was killed, his body was wrought into the world and a sea surrounded it. The gods then gave the surviving familiesjötnar lands along the shore to settle, placing them in the periphery. Ymir's brows were then used to buildMidgard and protect it from thejötnar due to their known aggression.[18][37]
Most stories inOld Norse mythology show a clear division between "This World", pertaining to that of gods and men, and "The Other", which is inhabited byjötnar and beings associated with them.[42][43]
A common motif is the journeying to obtain secret knowledge from thejötnar. In theEddic poemHyndluljóð,Freyja travels to thegýgrHyndla to obtain understanding of the lineage ofOttar, and the "ale of remembrance" (Old Norse:minnisǫl) so that he does not forget it.[44] In the Eddic poemVafþrúðnismál,Óðinn travels to thejötunnVafþrúðnir whereupon they engage in a wisdom contest.[45] He also travels to thejötnar to obtain fromSuttungr theMead of poetry, which imparts skill in poetry to any who drink it.[46] Thevölva who tells theVöluspá prophecy to Óðinn, while not explicitly described as ajötunn but was raised by them.[47]
Cosmology in Germanic mythology, as with other oral cultures, has many apparent contradictions when viewed from a naturalistic standpoint.[48] Despite this, a system of motifs repeat when travelling to thejötnar. In theProse Edda that thejötnar dwell inJötunheimr which is at points located in the North or East and inÞrymskviða can only be reached by air, howeverjötnar are also found South andacross water.[18][49]Jötnar such asSuttungr andSkaði live in mountains, which is further reflected in the termsOld Norse:bergrisar (mountain risar) andOld Norse:bergbúi (mountain dweller), a kenning forjötunn. Their lands of inhabitation are not restricted to this, also including forests, underground, and the shore.[18][49] Sometimes they are referred to as living in specific geographical locations such asÆgir onLæsø.[49] These motifs are also seen in the section ofBeowulf concerning the fight withmother of theeotenGrendel which has been noted by scholars to closely resemble the fight between atrollkona and Grettir in hiseponymous saga, wherein the female beings may only be reached by crossing through water.[50][51] The seemingly ununified location of thejötnar has been suggested to be an outcome of their intrinsically chaotic nature.[18] Even within the same story, what seem like contradictions have been noted by scholars, prompting the proposal of a model that the otherworld where thejötnar dwell can be reached from a number of passages or boundaries that cannot be traversed under normal conditions, such as the mountains, darkness and "flickering flame" crossed bySkírnir inSkírnismál.[49]
In Eddic sources,jötnar present a constant threat to gods and humans, often leading them to confrontation withThor.Hárbarðsljóð andÞrymskviða tell that if it was not forThor andMjöllnir,jötnar would soon overrunMidgard andAsgard respectively.[52] Nonetheless, Thor also has a positive relationship with somegýgjar, such as Gríðr and the unnamed wife ofHymir, who provide magical items and council that enable him to overcome otherjötnar.[53]
The distinction between gods andjötnar is not clearly defined and they should be seen as different culturally rather than biologically, with some gods, such asOdin,Thor andLoki being the descendants ofjötnar.[54] A common motif that often forms the core storyline of Eddic narratives is the unsuccessful attempts ofjötnar to marry one of the goddesses, be it through either trickery or force.[21] In contrast, the femalejötunnSkaði chooses the maleVanrNjörðr as a husband. According to theYnglinga saga, she later had children with Odin, from whom kings such asEarl Hakon were descended. TheVanrFreyr also marriesGerðr, who are the claimed ancestors of theYnglings.[55][56]Odin also seduces thejötnarGunnlöð andRindr and marriesJörð.[57] In the cases when gods marryjötnar, they appear to be fully incorporated into the gods and are referred to asÁsynjur inNafnaþulur. Consistent with this, reference toSkaði'svés inLokasenna and toponyms such as Skedevi inSweden suggests that despite being ajötunn, she was worshipped inOld Norse religion.[58][59]
One of thetröllkonur who dwell in the woodJárnviðr is a mother ofjötnar in the forms of wolves and from whom are descended all wolves.[32] Thiströllkona has been suggested to beAngrboða, thegýgr who begat withLoki the monstrous wolfFenrir andvenomous wormJörmungandr who become enemies of the gods.[60] Also inJárnviðr dwells thejötunnEggþér who has been interpreted as either a guardian of thegýgjar who live there or a herdsman of the wolves.[61][62] Wolves are also taken as mounts bygýgjar such asHyndla andHyrrokkin, the latter of which using snakes as reins.[52] This is further attested inskaldic poetry in which "wolf" is described by thekennings "Leikn's horse", "Gjálp's horse", "Gríðr's horse", while a group of wolves is referred to as "Gríðr's grey herd of horses".[52][63] Wolf-ridinggýgjar are referred to asmyrkriður ("riders in the night") orkveldriður ("dusk riders").[63][64]
Hræsvelgr is told inVafþrúðnismál (37) andGylfaginning (18) to be ajötunn in anarnarhamr (eagle-guise) who creates the wind by beating his wings.[65] Otherjötnar, such asÞjazi andSuttungr are able to become eagles by wearing theirarnarhamir,[66][67][68] or resemble them like Griðr inIlluga saga Gríðarfóstra who has hands like eagle talons.[69]
In later material composed during the Christian period such as the legendary sagas,jötnar are often portrayed as uncivilised and cannibalistic. In the case ofBárðar saga Snæfellsáss andHálfdanar saga Brönufóstra they specifically eat both human andhorse meat, the latter of which was directly associated with heathen practices.[70] The post-Christian association betweenjötnar andpre-Christian practices is also seen inBeowulf, in which the man-eatingeotenGrendel is described as having a "heathen soul" and "heathenish hand-spurs".[71] Femalejötnar are explicitly described as being heathen in some later sources such asOrms þáttr Stórólfssonar, in which religion prevents her from being with the hero, and the legendary sagaÞorsteins þáttr bæjarmagns, in which she must be baptised before marrying the hero.[53]
Giants with names cognate to terms forjötnar are found in laterNorthern European folklore, such as the Englishettin oryotun,thurse andhobthrust, Danishjætte, Swedishjätte and Finnishjätti.[72][73][74] InGermanic folklore, giants often share traits withjötnar, particularly as depicted in legendary sagas, combined with motifs from other European giants and are often interchangeable withtrolls.[21][20][75]
As withjötnar, Germanic giants live outside of human communities, in woods and mountains.[20] They commonly show an aversion to Christianity, often showing a disdain for the ringing of church bells.[76] Similarities are also both seen in their role in the construction of stoneworks. Akin to the Old Norsetale of thejötunn who built the wall of Ásgarðr, giants often enter into wagers involved in the building of churches which they later lose, as with the tale ofJätten Finn who is attributed with the construction ofLund Cathedral.[20][77] Ruins are also attributed to the works of both beings, as in the Old English poemThe Ruin and the aetiological story ofWade's Causeway inYorkshire.[73][78][79]
Some standing stones in northern Europe are explained as petrified giants such as the Yetnasteen inOrkney which derives its name fromOld Norse:Jǫtna-steinn (Jötunn's stone).[80] According to folklore, it awakens every New Year at midnight whereupon it visits the Loch of Scockness to drink.[81] Orcadian folklore also explains theRing of Brodgar as dancing giants who were turned to stone by the morning sun.[82] This motif is also seen inHelgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, in which thegýgrHrímgerðr engages in asenna withHelgi Hundingsbane until the sun rises and she is turned to stone.[83]
TheOrcadian tradition of Gyro Night derives its name fromOld Norse:gýgr and consisted of two older boys dressing up as masked old women one night in February and chasing smaller boys with ropes.[84] Similar to this are theFaroese andShetlandic popular customs of dressing up as giantesses referred to asGrýla (pluralgrýlur), or other similar terms, in costumes traditionally made from a combination of animal skins, tattered clothes, seaweed, straw and sometimes featuring masks. Grýla is a female creature described inSturlunga saga as having fifteen tails, and listed as atröllkona in theNafnaþulur section of theProse Edda who features in folklore throughout the North Atlantic islands settled by Scandinavians.[85][86]
Place-names derived fromþurs or cognate:
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