The diplomatic system of East Asia was hierarchical, lacking in equality.[11] Joseon Korea enjoyed a high level of independence and sovereignty in domestic and foreign affairs while ritually subordinate to the Ming and Qing dynasties of China.[12] However, the Qing dynasty was directly involved in the affairs of Joseon from theImo Incident of 1882 until theTreaty of Shimonoseki of 1895.[1]
Joseon[a] (English:/ˈtʃoʊsʌn/CHOH-sun;Korean: 조선;Hanja: 朝鮮;MR: Chosŏn;[tɕo.sʰʌn], also romanized asChosun), officiallyGreat Joseon (대조선국;大朝鮮國;[tʰɛ.dʑo.sʰʌn.ɡuk̚]),[16] was a dynastic kingdom ofKorea that existed for 505 years.[17][18] It was founded byTaejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by theKorean Empire in October 1897.[19] The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow ofGoryeo in what is today the city ofKaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-daySeoul. The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers ofAmnok andTuman through the subjugation of theJurchens.
During its 500-year duration, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment ofConfucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society.Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new state's ideology.Buddhism was accordingly discouraged, and occasionally Buddhists faced persecutions. Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the Korean peninsula and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, and science and technology. In the 1590s, the kingdom was severely weakened due to the two failedJapanese invasions of 1592 and 1598. Several decades later, Joseon was invaded by theLater Jin dynasty and theQing dynasty in1627 and1636–1637 respectively, leading to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy, for which the country became known as the "hermit kingdom" inWestern literature. After the end of these invasions fromManchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. What power the kingdom recovered during its isolation waned as the 18th century came to a close. Faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure, and rebellions at home, the kingdom declined rapidly in the late 19th century.
The Joseon period has left a substantial legacy to modern Korea; much of modernKorean culture, etiquette, norms, and societal attitudes toward current issues, along with the modernKorean language andits dialects, derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon. Modern Korean bureaucracy and administrative divisions were also established during the Joseon period.
By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-oldGoryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war spilled over from the disintegratingYuan dynasty. Following the emergence of theMing dynasty, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one favouring neutrality and the other wanting to retake theLiaodong peninsula, which many in Goryeo believed wastheirs. Goryeo remained a neutral third-party observer in the conflict between the Yuan and the Ming and had friendly diplomatic relations with both.[20] In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the formerSsangseong Prefectures be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces duringthe invasion of Korea, but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and GeneralCh'oe Yŏng seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlledLiaodong Peninsula.
GeneralYi Sŏng-gye was chosen to lead the attack; he revolted,swept back to the capital Gaegyeong (nowKaesong) and initiated acoup d'état, overthrowingKing U of Goryeo in favor of his son,Chang of Goryeo (1388). Neo-Confucian scholars, who were a small and medium-sized power at the time, were able to use this incident as an opportunity to lay a political foundation, and in particular,Jeong Do-jeon, a friend of Yi Sŏng-gye, wanted to use this incident as an opportunity to reform the corrupt nobles and the Buddhist community. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became KingGongyang of Goryeo). In 1392, Yi eliminatedChŏng Mong-ju, a highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him toWonju, and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule.
In the beginning of his reign, Yi Sŏng-gye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demotedWang clan, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state ofGojoseon.[21] He also moved the capital toHanseong (modernSeoul) fromGaegyeong (modern Kaesong).
When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. AlthoughYi Bang-won, Taejo's fifth son byQueen Sinui, had contributed the most to assisting his father's rise to power,Chief State CouncillorJeong Do-jeon andNam Eun used their influence on the king to name Yi Bang-seok, his eighth son (second son ofQueen Sindeok), as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Jeong Do-jeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bang-won wanted to establish an absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Jeong Do-jeon kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first.
After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bang-won struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Do-jeon and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the "First Strife of Princes".
Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Bang-gwa asKing Jeongjong. One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaegyeong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bang-won retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Bang-gan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the "Second Strife of Princes". In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was exiled toDosan while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won assumed the throne of Joseon asKing Taejong, third king of the dynasty.
In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the former King Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Regardless, Taejong initiated policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revocation of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold.
In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping theDopyeong Assembly, a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years ofGoryeo, in favor of theState Council of Joseon, a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, he issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights.
Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as theSinmun Office, to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials oraristocrats. He kept Jeong Do-jeon's reforms intact for the most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who had helped him ascend the throne to strengthen his own royal authority. To limit the influence of in-laws, he killed all four ofhis wife's brothers andShim On, the father-in-law of his sonSejong.
Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule.
In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier,Sejong the Great ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon theGihae Eastern Expedition to remove the nuisance ofwaegu (coastal pirates) who had been operating out ofTsushima Island.
In September 1419, thedaimyō of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, TheTreaty of Gyehae was signed in which thedaimyō of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea using fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports.[22][23][24][25]
On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts to safeguard his people from theJurchens, who later became theManchus, living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sentKim Chongsŏ, a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and expanded Korean territory, roughly the current border between North Korea and China.[26]
During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances innatural science,agriculture,literature,traditional Chinese medicine, andengineering. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title "Sejong the Great".[27] The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation ofHangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Rejected in its time by the scholarly elite, the everyday use ofHanja in writing was eventually surpassed by Hangul in the latter half of the 20th century.
After King Sejong's death, his sonMunjong continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after his coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son,Danjong. In addition to two regents,Princess Gyeonghye also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with the general Kim Chongsŏ, attempted to strengthen royal authority.[28] Danjong's uncle,Grand Prince Suyang, gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455, taking the name Sejo. Aftersix ministers loyal to Danjong attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile.
King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled theGrand Code for State Administration, which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea.
Sejo undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including theJiphyeonjeon which his predecessors, Sejong and Munjong, had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed toward the ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field.
Sejo's weak sonYejong succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephewSeongjong ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise ofneo-Confucian scholars calledsarim who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He establishedHongmungwan, the royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields.
He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by GeneralHeo Jong, was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan (兀狄哈), retreated to the north of theYalu River. King Seongjong was succeeded by his son,Yeonsangun, in 1494.
Portrait of the neo-Confucian scholar,Jo Gwang-jo (1482–1519)
Yeonsangun is often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history, whose reign was marked byliterati purges between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but thedeposed Queen Yun, who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat two of Seongjong's concubines, who had accused Queen Yun to death, and pushed his grandmother,Grand Queen Dowager Insu, who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Queen Yun's death along with their families. He also executedsarim scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne.
Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated theSungkyunkwan as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people used it on posters to criticize the king. After twelve years of misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup which placed his half-brotherJungjong on the throne in 1506.
Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his ministerJo Gwang-jo, the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system calledhyangyak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated Confucian writings with vernacular translations widely among the populace, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to theVeritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied the law strictly.
These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who had helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo Gwang-jo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resultingthird literati purge. For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era.
The middle Joseon period was marked by intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened the country, and by large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu which nearly toppled the kingdom.
TheSarim faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, andMyeongjong, but it gained control of the government during the reign ofKing Seonjo. It soon split into opposing factions known as theEasterners and theWesterners by their political or philosophical masters.Easterners mainly followed the teachings and philosophy of Yi Hwang and Jo Sik while theWesterners followed the philosophy of Yi I and Song Hon.[29][30] Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into theSoutherners and theNortherners; in the seventeenth century the Westerners also permanently split into theNoron and theSoron.[31] Factions in the Joseon dynasty were formed based on their different interpretations of Confucian philosophy, which mainly differed according to who their master was and what they believed in.[32] The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime.
One example is the1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society with a group of supporters that also received military training to fight againstWaegu. There is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group, which reflected the desire for a classless society and spread throughoutHonam. He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion.Jeong Cheol, head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to affect the widespread purge of Easterners who had the slightest connection to Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the aftermath.
Throughout Korean history, there was frequentpiracy on sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against theWaegu. The navy repelled pirates using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons andfire arrows in form ofsingijeon deployed byhwacha.
During theJapanese invasions in the 1590s,Toyotomi Hideyoshi, plotting the conquest ofMing China withPortuguese guns, invaded Korea with hisdaimyōs and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of superior firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with bothHanseong (present-daySeoul) andPyongyang captured.
The Turtle Ship interior
The invasion was slowed when AdmiralYi Sun-shin destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans.
During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and theturtle ships. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609.
A Korean painting depicting two Jurchen warriors and their horses
After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile,Nurhaci (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of theJianzhou Jurchens, was unifying theJurchen tribes ofManchuria into a strong coalition that his sonHong Taiji (r. 1626–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus". After he declaredSeven Grievances against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help fromGwanghaegun of Joseon (r. 1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting assistance.[33] Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.[33]
In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced byInjo of Joseon (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaegun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support the Ming, but arebellion led by military commanderYi Gwal erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north.[33] Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.[33]
In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephewAmin overran Joseon's defenses.[34] After a quick campaign that was assisted by northernyangban who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom.[35] Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies,Qing emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636.[36] Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as suzerain instead.[37] Injo's successorHyojong of Joseon (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.[38]
Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering theimperial Chinese tributary system, Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and[35] regarded the Ming dynasty as the center of the civilized world.[39] Joseon intellectuals, who had political and cultural allegiances to the Ming dynasty,[40] were forced to reexamine their state identity when the Qing overthrew the Ming,[39] leading to an influx of Mingrefugees into Joseon.[40] As a result, Joseon created theLittle China ideology, known as sojunghwa.[39] According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."[39] A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea to maintain that sense of cultural identity.[39] Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Mingreign periods, as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year ofChongzhen".[41]
After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence ofSilhak (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership ofKim Yuk, the chief minister ofKing Hyeonjong, the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants.
The co-existence system between Southerners and Westerners which were established after the Injo coup started to fall.[42] After the Yesong debate, factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kingsSukjong andGyeongjong, with major rapid reversals of the ruling faction, known as hwanguk (換局; literallychange in the state of affairs), being commonplace. During the early reign ofSukjong, the southerners managed to become a ruling faction and made westerners lose power. But the southerners' rise to power was temporary.Sukjong, who believed that political faction would weaken the king's power started rapid reversals of the ruling faction, which resulted in bloody killings between factions. After the three bloody hwanguk, the Southerners lost their influence in the central government, and the ruling Westerners were divided into hard-line Noron who rejected the Southerners and moderate Soron who were friendly to the Southerners. This shift resulted in political radicalism which viewed other factions as the ones that should be eliminated.[42][43] In response, the next kings,Yeongjo (r. 1724–1776) andJeongjo (r. 1776–1800), generally pursued theTangpyeongchaek – a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions.[44][45]
The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom.[46][47] Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishingKyujanggak, a royal library to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography,epigraphy and language.
Sinjeong, Queen Regent of Joseon. She served as nominal regent of Joseon, who selectedGojong to place upon the throne.
During the late Joseon period of the 18th and 19th centuries, Joseon started to change its perceptions of the Qing dynasty.[48] The shift in perceptions commenced through the introduction of Qing dynasty culture to Joseon society by Yeonhaengsa, Korean envoys to the Qing dynasty.[48] Progressive-thinking Joseon intellectuals advocated theBukhak theory, which argued that Joseon should adopt Qing and Western culture through the Qing dynasty.[48] Joseon scholars became intrigued by the sophisticated architectural technology of China, encompassing construction techniques, wagon utilization, and theondol heating system.[48] Particularly fascinated by brick, the proponents of Bukhak endeavored to popularize its usage across Joseon, and eventually succeeded.[48]Bak Jiwon was among the first to construct brick Chinese-style buildings in Anui, Gyeongsang Province, and Gyedong, Seoul, towards the end of the 18th century.[48] Following the establishment of the SuwonHwaseong Fortress, which was influenced by Qing construction technology and techniques, Qing-style architectural style and techniques started to become more widespread in Joseon society.[48]
After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo Politics" (in-law government) by royal in-laws.
The youngSunjo succeeded his father, King Jeongjo, in 1800. With Jeongjo's death theNoron seized power with the regency ofQueen Dowager Jeongsun, whose family had strong ties to the faction, and initiated apersecution of Catholics. However, after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Norons were gradually ousted, while theAndong Kim clan ofKim Jo-sun, the father of theQueen Sunwon, gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court.[49]
With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of Sedo Politics began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The other aristocratic families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process, and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country.
Externally, Joseon became increasinglyisolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.
In 1863,King Gojong took the throne. His father,Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to theFrench Campaign against Korea in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidatedGyeongbokgung, the seat of royal authority. From 1862 to 1864, an insurgency movement driven byDonghak followers and religious leaderChoe Je-u gathered a peasant army to take over southern parts of Korea until Choe was executed in 1864.[50]
During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. To get rid of the Andong Kim andPungyang Jo clans, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871,U.S. and Korean forces clashed in a U.S. attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on theGeneral Sherman incident of 1866.
In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, Queen Min (later calledEmpress Myeongseong) became a power in the court, placingher family in high court positions.
Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon dynasty. In 1881, theByeolgigun, a modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of the other soldiers were held back, and in 1882rioting soldiers attacked the Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside. In 1894, theDonghak Peasant Revolution saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion, with peasant leaderJeon Bong-jun defeating the forces of local ruler Jo Byong-gap at the battle ofGobu on January 11, 1894; after the battle, Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had reachedJeonju, and the Joseon government asked theQing dynasty government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops, and the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own,seizing the Royal Palace in Seoul and installing a pro-Japanese government on June 8, 1894. This soon escalated intoa war (1894–1895) between Japan and the Qing Empire, fought largely in Korea. (The king made a deal with Japan, partially out of a distrust of the queen's support for open trade policies toward the Western civilizations and China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars, particularly during the Joseon era, were touted for expressing allegiance to the king.)
Empress Myeongseong (referred to as Queen Min)[52] had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to theRussian Empire and to China for support. In 1895,Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents.[53] The Japanese minister to Korea,Lieutenant-GeneralViscount Miura, almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents[53] entered the palaceGyeongbokgung in Seoul, which was under Japanese control,[53] and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in the north wing of the palace.
The Qing acknowledged defeat in theTreaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895), which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China.[54] It was a step toward Japan gaining regionalhegemony in Korea.
The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared theKorean Empire, along with theGwangmu Reform in 1897.King Gojong assumed the title ofEmperor to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; the Joseon dynasty still reigned, albeit perturbed by Japan and Russia.
The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings,Gyeongguk daejeon, and Confucian teachings. The king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences. When there was severe drought or a series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from officials and citizenry. On those occasions, critics were immune from prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were a few exceptions).
Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through thesangeon (상언;上言) written petition system and thegyeokjaeng (격쟁;擊錚) oral petition system. Through thegyeokjaeng oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions to appeal their grievances or petition to the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make a petition to the king. More than 1,300gyeokjaeng-related accounts are recorded in theIlseongnok.[55][56][57]
Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.[58]
Seal used between 1637[59] and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.[60]
Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.[61]
Seal used between 1776 and 1876, for use in Qing-related state documents.
The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents.
"Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897[62]
"Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882[clarification needed][62]
Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank (정1품;正一品) down to ninth junior rank (종9품;從九品). Seniority and promotion was achieved through royal decree, based on examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.[63]
Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holderyangban status – hereditary nobility for three generations. To become such an official, one had to pass a series ofgwageo examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams – literary, military, and miscellaneous. The literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including allCensorate posts, were open only to officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks). The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given 9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks.
The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with honorific "daegam" (대감;大監) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with honorific "yeonggam" (영감;令監).[64] These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" (당상관;堂上官), took part in deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called "danghagwan" (당하관;堂下官).
State Council (Uijeongbu, 의정부, 議政府) was the highest deliberative body, whose power declined over the course of the period. The Chief State Councillor (Yeonguijeong, 영의정, 領議政), Left State Councillor (Jwauijeong, 좌의정, 左議政), and Right State Councillor (Uuijeong, 우의정, 右議政) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (all three were of 1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성, 左贊成) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성, 右贊成), both of 1st junior rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly controlled theSix Ministries, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but it primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions concurrently.
Yi Hang-bok – He was appointed and served as Byeongjo Panseo, Minister of National Defense during theJapanese invasions of Korea
Six Ministries (Yukjo, 육조, 六曹) make up the chief executive body. Each minister (Panseo, 판서, 判書) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by deputy minister (Champan, 참판, 參判), who was of 2nd junior rank. Ministry of Personnel was the most senior office of six ministries. As the influence of State Council waned over time, Minister of Personnel was often de facto head of ministers. Six ministries are in the order of seniority.
Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조, 吏曹) – was primarily concerned with appointment of officials
Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 戶曹) – taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies
Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) – military affairs
Office of Police Bureau (Podocheong, 포도청, 捕盜廳) – office for public order
Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) – administration of law, slavery, punishments
Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) – industry, public works, manufacturing, mining
Government offices of each organization were located where the currentGwanghwamun Plaza is located. So it was also called '''Yukjo street''' after the six ministries.
Portrait of the Inspector GeneralYun Bonggu [ko] (1681–1767)
Three Offices, orSamsa (삼사), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as major organ of press and provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they played much more prominent roles in the Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but had influential voice in the ensuing debate.
The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but had strong academic reputation and enjoyed special privileges and great prestige (for instance, censors were permitted to drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king). To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor.
Office of Inspector General (Saheonbu, 사헌부) – It monitored government administration and officials at each level in both central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon, 대사헌), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely independent officials.
Office of Censors (Saganwon, 사간원) – Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first reviewed by censors, who could ask for them to be withdraw if they judged them improper. It also issued opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by the Chief Censor (Daesagan, 대사간), of 3rd senior rank.
While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together they were called "Yangsa", (양사) which literally means "Both Offices", and often worked jointly especially when they sought to reverse the king's decision.
Office of Special Advisors (Hongmungwan, 홍문관, 弘文館) – It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons calledgyeongyeon (경연), in which they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak, 대제학), a part-time post of 2nd senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak, 부제학), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply Confucian society. The office was established to replaceHall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon, 집현전) after the latter was abolished byKing Sejo in the aftermath ofSix martyred ministers.
Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) served as a liaison between the king and Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries (승지), one for each ministry, and all were of 3rd senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king. In particular Chief Royal Secretary (도승지), a liaison to Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government official and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor.Hong Guk-yeong (duringJeongjo's reign) andHan Myeong-hoe (duringSejo) are some examples of chief royal secretaries who were the most powerful officials of their time.
Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부) was in charge of running the capital,Hanseong (now Seoul). It was led byPanyoon (판윤), of 2nd senior second rank equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.
Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.[65]
Office of Records (Ch'unch'ugwan, 춘추관) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose sole function was to record the meetings for history.[66]
Sungkyunkwan or Royal Academy (성균관) prepared future government officials. Those who passed first two stages ofgwageo examinations (literary exam) were admitted to Sungkyunkwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the government.) It also served as the state shrine forConfucian andKorean Confucian sages. The students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and demonstrations, could be influential as they represented fresh and uncorrupted consensus of young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong (대사성), of 3rd senior rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.
The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes asecret royal inspector (Amhaengeosa, 암행어사) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.
Provinces (Do, 도, 道) – There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by Governor (Gwanchalsa, 관찰사, 觀察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.
Bu (부) – administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by Buyun (부윤), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.
Mok (목;牧) – There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named ju (주;州). They were run by Moksa (목사;牧使), of 3rd senior rank.
County (Gun, 군, 郡) – There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (군수;郡守), a 4th junior rank.
Hyeon (현;縣) – Large hyeons were governed by Hyeonryeong (현령;縣令) of 5th junior rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeongam (현감;縣監) of 6th junior rank.
During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided intoeight provinces (do, 도, 道). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another.
Portrait of Kim Hu (1751–1805), a military officer of the Joseon dynasty
The army consists of the central army and the provincial armies. Each is made of peasant soldiers, cavalry,pengbaesu andgabsa elite soldiers, archers, musketeers, and artillery. The king appointed their generals.
The Joseon Navy consists of two types of main warships, thepanokseon and theturtle ship. They also used small vessels and fishing boats for reconnaissance and landings. The king also appoints their admirals.
TheNaegeumwi were royal guards defending the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-selected by the king. The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, theWanggung Sumunjang (왕궁수문장) were a royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates.
Joseon was a tributary state of theChina that was ritually subordinate to theMing dynasty andQing dynasty but exercised a high level of independence and sovereignty.[12][67] The ruling Yi family proclaimed their indigenous legitimacy but institutionalized structures that limited Joseon monarch power, which modern scholars view as producing contradictory statuses from a modern view of sovereignty.[12] Joseon maintained the highest position among China's tributary states,[68][69] which also included countries such as Japan, Vietnam,Ryukyu, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Brunei,[70][71][72] and the Philippines, among others.[73][74] In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens andSō clan ofTsushima until the 17th century,[75][76][77] and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.[78]
In 1392, GeneralYi Sŏng-gye led asuccessful coup to take political power in Korea fromthe King.General Yi's followers forced him to take the crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty.[79] In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime wanted recognition from other countries such as China. Furthermore, the only way to establish diplomatic relations and trade with China was to accept the tributary system of China. Thus, Joseon joined theImperial Chinese tributary system in 1401 within the context of theMandate of Heaven, in return for recognition.[80][81][82] Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among thetributary states,[83][84] which also included countries such as theAshikaga shogunate,Ryukyu Kingdom,Lan Xang,Đại Việt, and theAyutthaya Kingdom,[85][74] in return for accepting the subordinate tributary role of a "younger brother".[86][87] A series diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon'ssadae (serving the great or serving Ming China)[88] diplomacy in dealings withMing dynasty.Sadae construes China as the center of a Confucian moral universe.[89][90] and describes a foreign policy characterized by the various ways a weaker nation-state such as Korea acknowledges the strength of a greater power such as China.Sadae is made manifest in the actions of the weaker nation-state as it conveys goodwill and respect through its envoys.Sadaejuui conflates an attitude of subservience with the political realism which accompanies the prudent recognition of greater power.[91] As a foundation of diplomacy, the Joseon kingdom presumed that the Korean state was positioned within a Sinocentristic milieu.[92]
During the 1400s, the connection between Ming and Joseon was mainly pragmatic and somewhat contractual.[88] The concept of Sadae implied a commitment to serve Ming China, and depending on the international context, the dominant state could be substituted.[88] However, by the early 1500s, the relationship between Ming and Joseon was reinforced through a father-son dynamic, as Joseon elites began to regard the Ming emperor not just as asuzerain but also as a ritual father figure.[88] This transformation held significant weight because, unlike the changeable loyalty to a ruler, the Confucian principle of filial piety was considered immutable and irrevocable.[88] The lasting effect of the Ming-Joseon relationship on the Joseon elites endured well beyond the collapse of the Ming dynasty in the mid-1600s, molding the prevailing political and intellectual developments within Joseon Korea.[88] This influence is evident in the construction of the Taebodan, the Altar of Great Gratitude, and the Mandongmyo, an Eastern Shrine dedicated to Ming emperors, within Korea.[88] These structures, erected in 1704 within a palace courtyard and a local private academy respectively, served as tributes to the memory of selected Ming emperors, to honor the memory of specific Ming emperors.[88]
Joseon's perceptions of the Qing dynasty were significantly influenced by Sungmyeongbancheong, which means worship of Ming and disdain for Qing, prior to the middle of the 18th century.[48] The Joseon dynasty was characterized by strong anti-Qing sentiments and allegiance to the Ming dynasty. According to theVeritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, Joseon regarded the Ming Empire as its ancestral homeland and considered the Qing dynasty barbaric, maintaining loyalty to the Ming even after its collapse.[48] Due to their adherence to the China-centric perspective called Hwai-gwan, intellectuals in Joseon held profound disdain for the Qing dynasty.[48]
China [Ming Dynasty] is the mother and father of our country; thus, those barbarians [Qing Dynasty] are the enemy of our parents. As a civil servant, how can you abandon your parents and become the brother of your parents' enemy? The work [Ming's help to Joseon] of the Imjinwaeran (Japanese invasion of Joseon, 1592) was thanks to the power of the [Ming] emperor. It is difficult to forget the grace of the emperor as long as our country lives and breathes. … we [Joseon Dynasty] shall not abandon our loyalty even if our country disappears (Injo of Joseon Citation 1636).[48]
Joseon wanted to dispatch envoys as often as possible for economic and cultural interests as well as diplomatic purposes.[93] China demanded that Joseon pay tribute only once in a three-year cycle. However, Joseon strongly opposed this measure and demanded that Joseon pay tribute to China three times a year.[93] In response, China put pressure on them by banning envoy delegates from entering the country or demanding unreasonable tributes, but in the end Joseon, which had a theoretical advantage, got the privilege of paying tribute at least one or two times a year.[93] Joseon enjoyed the most opportunities for tribute trade with China, and the tribute trade with China was considered as a privilege not easily granted in Asia. China had to give a higher value than the tribute it received to maintain face, and Joseon abused it.[93] Joseon experienced numerous economic and cultural benefits through gifts from the imperial China. The purpose of the tribute varied depending on the circumstances, but it was usually for economic or diplomatic gain.
At the time of the 1882Imo Incident, theQing dynasty had alaissez-faire policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary state of China, Joseon was independent in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. After the Imo Incident, China abandoned itslaissez-faire policy, signed theChina–Korea Treaty of 1882, and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon.[1]
After theImo Incident in 1882, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback.[94] In the aftermath of the incident, the Chinese reasserted their influence over the peninsula, where they began to interfere in Korean internal affairs directly.[94] After stationing troops at strategic points in the capital Seoul, the Chinese undertook several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government.[95] The Qing dispatched two special advisers on foreign affairs representing Chinese interests to Korea: the GermanPaul Georg von Möllendorff, a close confidant ofLi Hongzhang, and the Chinese diplomatMa Jianzhong.[2] The Chinese supervised the creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service headed by von Möllendorff.[94] A staff of Chinese officers also took over the training of the army, providing the Koreans with 1,000 rifles, two cannons, and 10,000 rounds of ammunition.[96] Furthermore, theChingunyeong (Capital Guards Command), a new Korean military formation, was created and trained along Chinese lines byYuan Shikai.[2]
In October 1882, the two countries signed theChina–Korea Treaty of 1882, and Korea was reduced to a semi-colonial tributary state of China withKing Gojong unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval,[2] and with troops stationed in the country to protect Chinese interests.[nb 1] China's new policy toward Joseon was set byLi Hongzhang and implemented byYuan Shikai. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea from 1885 to 1894 throughYuan Shikai as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention toward Korea."[1]
This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with thegyorin (kyorin) (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings withJurchens, Japan,Ryukyu Kingdom,Siam andJava.[97] Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign policy.[98] The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a unique relationship.[99]
As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, andshōgunAshikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.[100] Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan'sEdo period.[101]
Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japaneseshōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power,[102][103] and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in many foreign communications to avoid the conflict with theSinocentric system in which theemperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".[104]
Woman's mourning clothes in JoseonA portrait of a civilbureaucrat in the Joseon period
The exact population figures of Joseon-era Korea are disputed as government records of households are considered unreliable in this period.[105] Between 1810 and 1850, the population declined approximately 10% and remained stable.[106] Before theintroduction of modern medicine by theKorean Empire government in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy for peasant and commoner Korean males was 24 years and for females 26 years, accounting for infant mortality.[107]
Joseon Korea installed a centralised administrative system controlled by civilbureaucrats and military officers who were collectively calledyangban. By the end of the 18th century, the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that the status was based on a unique mixture of family position,gwageo examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed in becoming a government official for the third generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (one had to pass the "lesser gwageo" exam (소과) in both of two stages to qualify for the greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to become a government official). The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local variation.[108] As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but not always of high income.[109]
Another portion of the population were slaves orserfs (nobi), "low borns" (cheonmin) oruntouchable outcastes (baekjeong).Slavery in Korea was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the rulingyangban class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it is inappropriate to call them "slaves",[110] while some scholars describe them asserfs.[111][112] There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, manysangmin people would voluntarily become nobi to survive.[citation needed] The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[113] Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property.[114] Private slaves could buy their freedom.
A Joseon painting which represents the Chungin (literally "middle people"), equivalent to thepetite bourgeoisie
Many of the remaining 40–50% of the population were surely farmers,[115] but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (Jungin), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc.[116] Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence.[117] In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system.[118]
Gender roles tightened during the Joseon period compared to the Goryeo era. The influence ofNeo-Confucianism contributed to the increasingly male-dominated society of the time. Women were expected to be silent and not socialize with men who were not their relatives. They were required to be chaste to their husbands, and widows were not allowed to remarry. Any doubt of a woman's chastity would bring dishonor to the family. To protect the family's honor, young girls would carry a small knife (paedo), and with this they were expected to take their own lives if they were raped or even rumored to be caught in an affair. Laws were also enacted to prohibit women from riding horses or playing sports.[119]
During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance to a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century, the social criticYi Chung-hwan (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "[W]ith so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends."[120] But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such asSumptuary law[121] regulation of the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women.[122] Precisely because of the tenets of the ConfucianClassic of Filial Piety, the adult male practice of Joseon prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the JapaneseTokugawa period.
Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710.[123] The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was developed based on the social hierarchy of theGoryeo era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed.
In the late 17th to 19th centuries, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely weakened. The situation was most marked in theDaegu region's Yangban class, where they were expected to reach nearly 70% in 1858.[124]
In 1801, government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next century.[125] By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea.[126] The institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in theGabo Reform of 1894.
Seonbis (Korean: 선비;Hanja: 士) played a major role withinpolitical factions of the Joseon dynasty. Etymologically derived from a native Korean word meaning "someone who is wise and knowledgeable," the word later became synonymous with the Chinese character 士 (shì), which meant "scholar" or "retainer". As the Joseon dynasty encouraged the study ofConfucianism,seonbis were interpreted as "students who study Confucianism" in Joseon-era Korean society.
Seonbis lived under strict, standardized Confucianist guidelines. Although they were encouraged to participate in politics and act as advisors to the King, manyseonbis lived quiet lives in secluded regions, unaffiliated with any government office. Theseseonbis often organized scholarly communities which often imposed a huge influence over local regions. Those who became office-holders acted as aristocrats, boasting influence over Joseon politics.[127]
Seonbis consistently used debate as a major decision-making method. Seonbis expressed their views on problems to be solved in front of the king and discussed the wrongdoings of the other faction's argument. These political clashes often led to violence, such as theKorean literati purges.[127]
Seonbis also participated inrighteous armies during times of war, as archery was taught as a liberal arts subject forseonbis. Seonbis such asGwak jae-u, Ko Kyung-myung, andJo Heon led armies in battle. Asseonbis also acted as village leaders, they often united local peasants and led armies into war.[128][129]
The Joseon dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the firstKorean tea ceremony,Korean gardens, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses and palaces.
Noble Korean women during this time were suppressed, along with shamans, in the 15th century because of Neo-Confucianist social norms when they previously led some of the least restricted lives out of anyone inAsia.[130]
Men's (right) and women's (left) clothes (Hanbok) of Joseon period. A portrait painted byShin Yun-bok (1758–?).Male dress of aSeonbi. A portrait painted byYi Jae-gwan (1783–1837).
During the Joseon period, jeogori of women'shanbok became gradually tightened and shortened. In the 16th century, jeogori was baggy and reached below the waist, but by the 19th century, jeogori was shortened to the point that it did not cover the breasts, so another piece of cloth (heoritti) was used to cover them. At the end of the 19th century,Heungseon Daewongun introducedMagoja, aManchu-style jacket, to Korea, which is often worn with hanbok to this day.
Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to expose heoritti orheorimari which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under jeogori in the picture is heoritti.
Royal ceremony with Joseon era clothing
The upper classes wore hanbok of closely wovenramie cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they were required to wear overcoats known asdurumagi which reach the knees.
15th century. Joseon period, Korea. Blue and white porcelain jar with plum and bamboo design.Landscape of Mt. Geumgang byKim Hong-do (1745–1806) in 1788Chaekgeori a type ofMinhwaMogyeon byYi Am
The Mid-Joseon period painting styles moved toward increasedrealism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began – moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive to the traditional Chinese painting.[131]
Ceramics are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with cobalt, copper redunderglaze, blue underglaze and iron underglaze. Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality.[132]
Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted inKorea. Historically overshadowed by the popularity ofceladon, it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain, also known asbaekje, was recognized for its artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty ofConfucianism. During this period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the production of white porcelain.[132]
Blue and white porcelain artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs inunderglaze by using naturalcobalt pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics.[132] Initially developed by the Chinese at theJingdezhen kilns in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered inKorea, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life inNeo-Confucianism.[132]
Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-redunderglaze are the most difficult to successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items originated during 12th century inKorea and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri inGwangju, a city that played a significant role in the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.[132]
Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.[132]
TheVeritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty (also known as theAnnals of the Joseon Dynasty) are the annual records of the Joseon dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, orsillok, consist of 1,893 volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the exception of twosillok compiled during thecolonial era, theAnnals are the 151stnational treasure of Korea and listed inUNESCO'sMemory of the World registry.
Uigwe is a collection of royalprotocols of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family.
The Joseon kingdom was noted for havingConfucianism as its main philosophy, and also included someBuddhism. The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials – Some who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated closely with monks."[citation needed] This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhists, their exchanges with Buddhists show that at the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom.
One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official Park Se-dang (박세당, 朴世堂, 1629–1703). He argues against Buddhism with the following, "People say thatHan Yu andOuyang Xiu have harshly criticized Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound. People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it [its profoundness]. I, myself, don't think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism, then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who [also felt no need to argue in detail when he] criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi.[133] Surely, he did not argue further than to sayYang Zhu andMozi did not respect their fathers and their emperors."[133] He wrote a poem:
久離塵俗萬緣虛
For long, I have left the mundane world whose innumerable conditions are empty;
只愛游方不戀居
I have but travelled here and there, finding no enjoyment in settled life.
明日又浮滄海去
Tomorrow once again I leave for Changhae;
沃州寥落舊精廬
The old, pure and simple hut of Okju province looks lonely.
Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in Confucian-scholar officials.[unbalanced opinion?][134] Many monarchs and members of the royal court also practiced or tolerated Buddhism among their family and court advisors and commissioned or were patrons of Buddhist art.[135][136][137]
TheJoseon period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces issijo (시조;時調).[139]Sijo is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly. In Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb. For example:
Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?
Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?
When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.[140]
Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own. Assijo were sung in Korean, the pioneering of Hangul created the possibility forsijo to be written down without the use of substitutions such asIdu script. The first copy ofsijo is of the 'Twelve Songs ofDosan' byYi Hwang written in 1565, which were written 100 years after the proclamation ofHangul.[141] Additionally, the first anthology ofsijo was compiled byKim Cheontaek in 1728;[142] before the anthology fewsijo were written.
Kim Cheontaek's anthology represents a change in the authorship ofsijo. At first,sijo were primarily composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of theKisaeng class. By the mid-seventeenth century, thejungin or "professional class" were composingsijo as well. This also coincided with a new form ofsijo called "narrativesijo" (사설시조;辭說時調), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened.[143] This expansion is likely a development from the so-called "irregularsijo" (엇시조;旕時調), in which there was a minor lengthening of one of the first two lines.[144] While there are very few remaining irregularsijo, and the form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrativesijo and the form continues to evolve.
Pansori (판소리) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within theJeolla Province. It became a full-fledged musical form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became interested in it. Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down, and hence those five are the only ones sung today. Having been developed by commoners,p'ansori usually reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with theyangban,p'ansori shifted somewhat towardyangban sensibilities and restrictions. P'ansori had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both because of thep'ansori novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the classical novel.
The Joseon period under the reign ofSejong the Great was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy,Cheonmin (low-status) people such asJang Yeong-sil were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals.
Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking)water clock (the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in theGoryeo period. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were thesight glass, and theudometer.
The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars.[145] Later celestial globes (Gyupyo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations.
The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances underKing Sejong was theChiljeongsan, which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon),developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements.[146]Honcheonsigye is an astronomical clock created bySong I-yeong in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given time.
Gangnido, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 byKim Sa-hyeong [ko],Yi Mu [ko], andYi Hoe [ko]. The map was created in the second year of the reign ofTaejong of Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.
The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period progressed slower than the early Joseon period.
16th-century court physician,Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement beingDongui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text ofTraditional Korean medicine. The work spread to China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics ofOriental medicine today.
The first softballistic vest,myeonjebaegab, was invented in JoseonKorea in the 1860s shortly after theFrench campaign against Korea.Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bulletproof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies.Kim Gi-du andGang Yun found thatcotton could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during theUnited States expedition to Korea (1871), when the US Navy attackedGanghwa Island in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at theSmithsonian Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.
This sectionmay contain an excessive amount of intricatedetail that may interest only a particular audience.Specifically, not clear why this list is exclusive to the end of the dynasty, with some being post-Joseon. Possibly a brief prose description of the dynasty (with no explicit list) is better. Please help byspinning off orrelocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be againstWikipedia's inclusion policy.(June 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Japanese illustration ofKing Gojong andQueen Min receivingInoue KaoruThis compilation photo, taken about 1915, shows the following royal family members, from left:Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui, the 6th son of Gojong;Yi Cheok, Emperor Sunjong, the 2nd son and the last monarch of Korea;Yi Un, Prince Imperial Yeong, the 7th son;Gojong, the Retired Emperor;Empress Yun, wife of Sunjong;Lady Kim, Consort Princess Imperial Ui, wife of Prince Imperial Ui; andYi Geon, the eldest son of Prince Ui. The seated child in the front row isPrincess Deokhye, Gojong's 5th daughter and youngest (14th) child. (This is a compilation of individual photographs since the Japanese did not allow them to be in the same room at the same time, and some were forced to leave Korea).
The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty:
^A Korean historian stated that "the Chinese government began to turn its former tributary state into a semi-colony and its policy toward Korea substantially changed to a new imperialistic one where the suzerain state demanded certain privileges in her vassal state".[96]
^abOrchiston, Wayne; Green, David A.; Strom, Richard (2014).New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson.Springer.
^Allen, Horace Newton (1889)."Korean Tales". Washington, D.C.The population, according to the most reliable estimate, is a little more than sixteen millions.
^Li, Jun-gyu (이준규) (July 22, 2009).(세상사는 이야기) 왜색에 물든 우리말-(10) (in Korean). Newstown.1392년부터 1910년까지 한반도전역을 통치하였던 조선(朝鮮)은 일반적으로 조선왕조(朝鮮王朝)라 칭하였으며, 어보(御寶), 국서(國書)등에도 대조선국(大朝鮮國)이라는 명칭을 사용하였었다. (translation) Joseon which had ruled from 1392 to 1910 was commonly referred to as the "Joseon dynasty" while "Great Joseon" was used in the royal seal, national documents, and others.[permanent dead link]
^Kang, Jae-eun (2006).The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. p. 177.ISBN978-1931907309.Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. RetrievedAugust 7, 2015. "Yi Sŏng-gye issued a royal edict to proclaim the name of the new kingdom to "Joseon" and issued amnesty to all criminals who opposed the transition. The statement by Taizu about "only the name of Joseon is beautiful and old" naturally refers to Gija Joseon."
^Rutt, Richard; et al. (1999).Korea. Routledge/Curzon.ISBN978-0-7007-0464-4.Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. RetrievedNovember 1, 2020.
^Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (2014).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 93.ISBN978-1107098466. RetrievedDecember 6, 2017.
^상언격쟁.문화콘텐츠닷컴. Korea Creative Content Agency.Archived from the original on December 6, 2017. RetrievedDecember 6, 2017.
^Lewis, James B. (November 2, 2005).Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan. Routledge.ISBN978-1135795986. RetrievedJuly 20, 2016. "Tribute trade was the oldest and most important component of the trade structure, not for its volume or content, but for its symbolism. Japanese brought items to "offer" to Korea and received in exchange "gifts" of higher value, since Korea was a greater land receiving supplicants. Koreans viewed tribute trade as a "burden" and a favor extended to needy islanders; the significance was diplomatic not economic."
^Lewis, James Bryant.Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, p. 269 n. 89, citingHanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu (1996) by Na Chongpu.
^Ch'oe YH, PH Lee & WT de Bary (eds.) (2000), Sources of Korean Tradition: Volume II: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries.Columbia University Press, p. 6
^Jun SH, JB Lewis & H-R Kang (2008),Korean Expansion and Decline from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: A View Suggested by Adam Smith. J. Econ. Hist. 68: 244–82.
^"...before the introduction of modern medicine in the early 1900s the average life expectancy for Koreans was just 24 for males and 26 for females."Lankov, Andrei; Kim EunHaeng (2007).The Dawn of Modern Korea. Seoul, South Korea: EunHaeng Namu. p. 47.ISBN978-89-5660-214-1. Archived fromthe original on November 1, 2020. RetrievedFebruary 16, 2010.
^Oh SC (2006),Economic growth in P'yongan Province and the development of Pyongyang in the Late Choson Period. Korean Stud. 30: 3–22
^Haboush JHK (1988), A Heritage of Kings: One Man's Monarchy in the Confucian World. Columbia University Press, pp. 88–89.
^Palais, James B. (1998).Views on Korean social history. Institute for Modern Korean Studies, Yonsei University. p. 50.ISBN978-8971414415. RetrievedFebruary 15, 2017.Another target of his critique is the insistence that slaves (nobi) in Korea, especially in Choson dynasty, were closer to serfs (nongno) than true slaves (noye) in Europe and America, enjoying more freedom and independence than what a slave would normally be allowed.
^Haboush JHK (2003),Versions and subversions: Patriarchy and polygamy in Korean narratives, in D Ko, JHK Haboush & JR Piggott (eds.), Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea and Japan.University of California Press, pp. 279–304.
^Kyunghee, Ryun."Four Preaching Buddhas". Smarthistory.org. RetrievedNovember 18, 2023.During the Joseon period, the official government policy was to suppress Buddhism in favor of Neo-Confucianism. Paradoxically, however, queens, consorts, and other members of the royal court frequently commissioned Buddhist dedications and offerings. In the sixteenth century, for example, numerous Buddhist paintings were commissioned by female members of the royal court
^Pope Gregory XVI,Breve Ex debito pastoralis, in Italian, published on September 9, 1831, accessed on August 24, 2024
^Kim, Hyŭnggyu.Understanding Korean Literature. p. 66.
^Rutt, Richard.The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo. pp. No.15.
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^네이버.Naver.Archived from the original on February 24, 2020. RetrievedJuly 29, 2021.
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# denotes that the king was deposed and never received atemple name.
^Those who were listed were not reigning monarchs but posthumously recognized; the year following means the year of recognition.
^Only the crown princes that did not become the king were listed; the former year indicates when one officially became the heir and the latter one is that when one died/deposed. Those who ascended to the throne were excluded in the list for simplification.
^The title given to the biological father, who never reigned, of the kings who were adopted as the heir to a precedent king.
^Thede jure monarch of Korea during the era was theEmperor of Japan, while the former Korean emperors were given nobility title "King Yi" instead.
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![Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.[58]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJoseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon).svg)
![Seal used between 1637[59] and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.[60]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJoseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2c_1637-1653).svg)
![Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.[61]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJoseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2c_1653-1776).svg)
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!["Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897[62]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDaegunjubo.svg)
!["Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882[clarification needed][62]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg)
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