He is one of the Fathers of theEastern Orthodox Church and is best known for his strong defence oficons.[5] TheCatholic Church regards him as aDoctor of the Church, often referred to as theDoctor of the Assumption due to his writings on theAssumption of Mary.[6] He was also a prominent exponent ofperichoresis, and employed the concept as a technical term to describe both the interpenetration of the divine and human natures of Christ and the relationship between the hypostases of the Trinity.[7] John is at the end of thePatristic period of dogmatic development, and his contributions are the last ones in the series of theological developments before themedieval period. InCatholic theology, he is therefore known as the "last of the Greek Fathers".[8]
The main source of information for the life of John of Damascus is a work attributed to one John of Jerusalem, identified therein as thePatriarch of Jerusalem.[9] This is an excerpted translation into Greek of an earlier Arabic text. The Arabic original contains a prologue not found in most other translations, and was written by an Arab monk, Michael, who explained that he decided to write his biography in 1084 because none was available in his day. However, the main Arabic text seems to have been written by an unknown earlier author sometime between the early 9th and late 10th century.[9] Written from a hagiographical point of view and prone to exaggeration and some legendary details, it is not the best historical source for his life, but is widely reproduced and considered to contain elements of some value.[10] The hagiographic novelBarlaam and Josaphat is a work of the 10th century[11] attributed to a monk named John. It was only considerably later that the tradition arose that this was John of Damascus, but most scholars no longer accept this attribution. Instead much evidence points toEuthymius of Athos, a Georgian who died in 1028.[12]
John was born inDamascus, in 675 or 676, to a prominent DamasceneSyrian Christian family.[13][14]His father,Sarjun ibn Mansur, served as an official of the earlyUmayyad Caliphate. His grandfather,Mansur ibn Sarjun, was a prominentByzantine official of Damascus, who had been responsible for the taxes of the region during the reign of EmperorHeraclius and also served under EmperorMaurice.[15][16] Mansur seems to have played a role in the capitulation of Damascus to the troops ofKhalid ibn al-Walid in 635 after securing favorable conditions of surrender.[15][16]Eutychius, a 10th-centuryMelkite patriarch, mentions him as one high-ranking official involved in the surrender of the city to the Muslims.[17]
The name John was very common among Christians in Syria, and Eutychius noted that the governor of Damascus, who was likely Mansur ibn Sarjun, was a Syrian.[18] The tribal background of Mansur ibn Sarjun, John's grandfather, is unknown, but biographer Daniel Sahas has speculated that the name Mansur could have implied descent from theArab Christian tribes ofKalb orTaghlib.[18] The name was common among Syrian Christians of Arab origins, and Eutychius noted that the governor of Damascus, who was likely Mansur ibn Sarjun, was an Arab Syrian.[18] However, Sahas also asserts that the name does not necessarily imply an Arab background and could have been used by non-Arab, Semitic Syrians.[18] While Sahas and biographers F. H. Chase and Andrew Louth assert thatMansūr was an Arabic name, Raymond le Coz asserts that the "family was without doubt of Syrian origin";[19] indeed, according to historian Daniel J. Janosik, "Both aspects could be true, for if his family ancestry were indeed Syrian, his grandfather [Mansur] could have been given an Arabic name when the Arabs took over the government."[20] WhenSyria was conquered by the Muslim Arabs in the 630s, the court at Damascus retained its large complement of Christian civil servants, John's grandfather among them.[15][17] John's father,Sarjun (Sergius), went on to serve the Umayyadcaliphs.[15] John of Jerusalem claims that he also served as a senior official in the fiscal administration of theUmayyad Caliphate underAbd al-Malik before leavingDamascus and his position around 705 to go toJerusalem and become amonk. However, this point is debated within the academic community as there is no trace of him in the Umayyad archives, unlike his father and grandfather. Some researchers, such asRobert G. Hoyland,[21] deny such an affiliation, while others, like Daniel Sahas or the Orthodox historianJean Meyendorff, suppose that he might have been a lower-level tax administrator, a local tax collector who would not have needed to be mentioned in the archives, but who might not have necessarily been part of the court either.[22][23] In addition, John's own writings never refer to any experience in a Muslim court. It is believed that John became a monk atMar Saba, and that he was ordained as a priest in 735.[15][24]
19th-century icon (Arabic inscription)Depiction of John Damascene in theNuremberg Chronicle
John was raised in Damascus, and Christian folklore holds that during his adolescence, John associated with the futureUmayyad caliphYazid I and the Taghlibi Christian court poetal-Akhtal.[25]
One of thevitae describes his father's desire for him to "learn not only the books of the Muslims, but those of the Greeks as well." From this it has been suggested that John may have grown up bilingual.[26] John does indeed show some knowledge of theQuran, which he criticizes harshly.[27]
Other sources describe his education in Damascus as having been conducted in accordance with the principles ofHellenic education, termed "secular" by one source and "classical Christian" by another.[28][29] One account identifies his tutor as a monk by the name ofCosmas, who had been kidnapped by Arabs from his home inSicily, and for whom John's father paid a great price. As a refugee from Italy, Cosmas brought with him the scholarly traditions ofLatin Christianity. Cosmas was said to have rivaledPythagoras in arithmetic andEuclid ingeometry.[29] He also taught John's orphan friend,Cosmas of Maiuma.
John possibly had a career as a civil servant for theCaliph in Damascus before his ordination.[30]
He then became a priest and monk at theMar Saba monastery near Jerusalem. One source suggests John left Damascus to become a monk around 706, whenal-Walid I increased the Islamicisation of the Caliphate's administration.[31] This is uncertain, as Muslim sources only mention that his father Sarjun (Sergius) left the administration around this time, and fail to name John at all.[21] During the next two decades, culminating in theSiege of Constantinople (717–718), theUmayyad Caliphate progressively occupied the borderlands of the Byzantine Empire. An editor of John's works, FatherLe Quien, has shown that John was already a monk at Mar Saba before the dispute over iconoclasm, explained below.[32]
In the early 8th century,iconoclasm, a movement opposed to the veneration of icons, gained acceptance in theByzantine court. In 726, despite the protests ofGermanus,Patriarch of Constantinople, EmperorLeo III (who had forced his predecessor,Theodosius III, to abdicate and himself assumed the throne in 717 immediately before the great siege) issued his first edict against theveneration of images and their exhibition in public places.[33]
All agree that John of Damascus undertook a spirited defence of holy images in three separate publications. The earliest of these works, hisApologetic Treatises against those Decrying the Holy Images, secured his reputation. He not only attacked the Byzantine emperor, but adopted a simplified style that allowed the controversy to be followed by the common people, stirring rebellion among the iconoclasts. Decades after his death, John's writings would play an important role during theSecond Council of Nicaea (787), which convened to settle the icon dispute.[34]
Leo III reportedly sent forged documents to the caliph which implicated John in a plot to attackDamascus. The caliph then ordered John's right hand be cut off and hung up in public view. Some days afterwards, John asked for the restitution of his hand, and prayed fervently to theTheotokos before her icon: thereupon, his hand is said to have been miraculously restored.[32] In gratitude for this miraculous healing, he attached a silver hand to the icon, which thereafter became known as the "Three-handed", orTricherousa.[35] That icon is now located in theHilandar monastery of theHoly Mountain.
When the name of John of Damascus was inserted in theGeneral Roman Calendar in 1890, it was assigned to 27 March. The feast day was moved in 1969 to the day of John's death, 4 December, the day on which his feast day is celebrated also in theByzantine Rite calendar,[39] Lutheran Commemorations,[40] and the Anglican Communion and Episcopal Church.[41]
Besides his purely textual works, many of which are listed below, John of Damascus also composed hymns, perfecting thecanon, a structured hymn form used inByzantine Rite liturgies.[44]
The Fountain of Knowledge, also known by other titles such as:The Fountain of Wisdom orThe Fount of Knowledge (Koinē Greek: Πηγή Γνώσεως, Pēgē gnōseōs, literally meaning “The Source of Knowledge”), is described as a synthesis and unification of Christian philosophy, ideas and doctrine that was influential in directing the course of medieval Latin thought and that became the principal textbook of Greek Orthodox theology. Divided into three parts the chapters are:
Philosophical Chapters (Koinē Greek: Κεφάλαια φιλοσοφικά, Kefálea filosofiká) – commonly called "Dialectic", it deals mostly with logic, its primary purpose being to prepare the reader for a better understanding of the rest of the book. Based on the previous work of the late-3rd-century NeoplatonistPorphyry’sIsagoge, an introduction to the logic of Aristotle. The work was notable in that it allowed John of Damascus with information to explain the basic concepts of logic and the rationalisation of God.[46]
Concerning Heresy (Koinē Greek: Περὶ αἱρέσεων,Perì eréseon, literally meaning “About Heresies”) – Based on the previous work of the Panarion (Koinē Greek: Πανάριον, derived fromLatinpanarium, meaning "bread basket") byEpiphanius of Salamis.[47][48] was 4th-century heresiology that provided John with a structural model and descriptions of 80 earlier heresies.[4] Through Epiphanius, John likely drew indirectly on earlier works by St. Irenaeus (Against Heresies) and Justin Martyr, whose anti-heretical writings influenced Patristic heresiology. The 20 heresies John added, numbered 81 through 100, address theological developments from the mid-5th century onward, including Nestorianism, Monophysitism, and other Christological disputes that emerged after Epiphanius’s time. Unlike the first 80 heresies, which are directly sourced from the Panarion, the origins of these additional entries are less certain. Scholars propose that John likely drew on a variety of contemporary or near-contemporary materials, such as ecclesiastical histories, synodal records, or other heresiological texts available in the 8th century.[49] Some scholars suggest that the 20 heresies John added may have been influenced by works such as Sophronius of Jerusalem’s Synodic Letter and Leontius of Byzantium’s On Sects, a claim rooted in a manuscript note referenced by 18th-century editor Michel Lequien. Lequien posited that John drew from authors including Theodoret, Timothy of Constantinople, Sophronius, and Leontius.[49] However, this remains uncertain, as modern scholarship, including the 1958 introduction to John’s translated works, finds no concrete evidence to substantiate these influences, stating that “there is apparently no foundation for it.”Thus, while the idea of such contributions persists, it lacks definitive support and remains speculative.[49] Regardless, the work was notable it allowed John with information about different heresies as well as a model for how to organize a catalogue of heresies. In original 80 religioussects which either classed as organized groups or philosophies, from the time ofAdam to the latter part of the fourth century according to Epiphanius. John added twenty heresies that had occurred during his time.[50][46] The last chapter ofConcerning Heresy (Chapter 101) deals with theHeresy of the Ishmaelites.[51] Unlike earlier sections devoted to other heresies, which are disposed of succinctly in just a few lines, this chapter runs into several pages. It constitutes one of the first Christian refutations ofIslam. In treating ofHeresy of the Ishmaelites he vigorously assails the immoral practices ofMuhammad and the corrupt teachings inserted in theQuran to legalize the delinquencies of the prophet.[50]Concerning Heresy was frequently translated from Greek into Latin. His manuscript is one of the first Orthodox Christian refutations of Islam which has influenced the Western Catholic Church's attitude on Islam. It was among the first sources representing Muhammad to the West as a "false prophet" and "Antichrist".[52]
An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Koinē Greek: Ἔκδοσις Ἀκριβὴς τῆς Ὀρθοδόξου Πίστεως, Ékdosis akribès tēs Orthodóxou Písteōs) – a summary of the teachings and dogmatic writings of theearly Church Fathers and more specifically theCappadocian Fathers (Saint Basil,Saint Gregory of Nazianzus andSaint Gregory of Nyssa) from the 4th century. It incorporates Aristotelian language and demonstrates originality through John's selection of texts and annotations influenced by Antiochene analytical theology. This work, when translated into Oriental languages and Latin, became a valuable resource for both Eastern and Western thinkers, offering logical and theological concepts. Additionally, its systematic style served as a model for subsequent theological syntheses composed by medieval Scholastics. The "Exposition" delves into speculations about the nature and existence of God, giving rise to points of debate among later theologians. This writing was the first work ofsystematic theology inEastern Christianity and an important influence on later Scholastic works.[53][46]
Near the final chapters (Chapter 101) ofConcerning Heresy, John mentions Islam asthe Heresy of the Ishmaelites. He is one of the first known Christian critics of Islam. John claims that Muslims were once worshipers of Aphrodite who followed after Muhammad because of his "seeming show of piety," and that Muhammad himself read the Bible and, "likewise, it seems," spoke to an Arian monk that taught himArianism instead of Christianity. John also had read the Quran, as he criticizes it for saying that the Virgin Mary was the sister of Moses and Aaron, according to Surah Maryam (Chapter 19), Verse 28 where it reads: “O sister of Aaron! Your father was not a man of evil, nor was your mother unchaste!” and that Jesus was not crucified but brought alive into heaven according to Surah An-Nisa (Chapter 4), Verse 157–158 where it reads: “And [for] their saying, ‘Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.’
But they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him — but [it was] made to appear to them.
And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it except the following of assumption.
And they did not kill him, for certain.
Rather, Allah raised him to Himself. And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise."
John further states to have spoken to Muslims about Muhammad. He uses theplural "we", whether in reference to himself, or to a group of Christians that he belonged to who spoke to the Muslims, or in reference to Christians in general.[54]
Regardless, John claims that he asked the Muslims what witnesses can testify that Muhammad received the Quran from God – since, John says, Moses received the Torah from God in the presence of the Israelites, and since Islamic law mandates that a Muslim can only marry and do trade in the presence of witnesses – and what biblical prophets and verses foretold Muhammad's coming – since, John says, Jesus was foretold by the prophets and whole Old Testament. John claims that the Muslims answered that Muhammad received the Quran in his sleep. John replied "Then we jokingly say to them that, as long as he received the book in his sleep and did not actually sense the operation"[55]claims that he jokingly answered, "You're spinning me dreams."[54][55]
Some of the Muslims, John says, claimed that the Old Testament that Christians believe foretells Jesus' coming is misinterpreted, while other Muslims claimed that the Jews edited the Old Testament so as to deceive Christians (possibly into believing Jesus is God, but John does not say).[54]
While recounting his dialogue with Muslims, John claims that they have accused him of idol worship for venerating the Cross and worshipping Jesus. John claims that he told the Muslims that the black stone in Mecca was the head of a statue of Aphrodite. Moreover, he claims, the Muslims would be better off to associate Jesus with God if they say Jesus is the Word of God and Spirit. John claims that the word and the spirit are inseparable from that in which they exist and if the Word of God has always existed in God, then the Word must be God.[54]
John ends the chapter by claiming that Islam permitspolygamy, that Muhammad committed adultery with a companion's wife before outlawing adultery, and that the Quran is filled with stories, such as theShe-Camel of God and God giving Jesus an "incorruptible table."[54]
It is believed that the homily on the Annunciation was the first work to be translated into Arabic. Much of this text is found in Manuscript 4226 of the Library of Strasbourg (France), dating to AD 885.[56]
Later in the 10th century, Antony, superior of the monastery of St. Simon (near Antioch) translated a corpus of John Damascene. In his introduction to John's work, Sylvestre patriarch of Antioch (1724–1766) said that Antony was monk at Saint Saba. This could be a misunderstanding of the title Superior of Saint Simon probably because Saint Simon's monastery was in ruins in the 18th century.[57]
Most manuscripts give the text of the letter to Cosmas,[58] the philosophical chapters,[59] the theological chapters and five other small works.[60]
In 1085, Mikhael, a monk from Antioch, wrote the Arabic life of the Chrysorrhoas.[61] This work was first edited by Bacha in 1912 and then translated into many languages (German, Russian and English).
On holy images; followed by three sermons on the Assumption, translated by Mary H. Allies, (London: Thomas Baker, 1898)
Exposition of the Orthodox faith, translated by the Reverend SDF Salmond, in Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 2nd Series vol 9. (Oxford: Parker, 1899) [reprint Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963.]
Writings, translated by Frederic H. Chase. Fathers of the Church vol 37, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1958) [ET ofThe fount of knowledge;On heresies;The orthodox faith]
Daniel J. Sahas (ed.),John of Damascus on Islam: The "Heresy of the Ishmaelites", (Leiden: Brill, 1972)
On the divine images: the apologies against those who attack the divine images, translated by David Anderson, (New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1980)
Three Treatises on the Divine Images. Popular Patristics. Translated by Louth, Andrew. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. 2003.ISBN978-0-88141-245-1. Louth, who also wrote the introduction, was at theUniversity of Durham as Professor of Patristics and Byzantine Studies.
Two translations exist of the 10th-century hagiographic novelBarlaam and Josaphat, traditionally attributed to John:
Barlaam and Ioasaph, with an English translation by G.R. Woodward and H. Mattingly, (London: Heinemann, 1914)
The precious pearl: the lives of Saints Barlaam and Ioasaph,notes and comments by Augoustinos N Kantiotes; preface, introduction, and new translation by Asterios Gerostergios, et al., (Belmont, MA: Institute for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 1997)
^Cross, F.L (1974)."Cicumincession". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford University Press.
^O'Connor, J.B. (1910) "John of Damascus was the last of the Greek Fathers. His genius was not for original theological development, but for compilation of an encyclopedic character. In fact, the state of full development to which theological thought had been brought by the great Greek writers and councils left him little else than the work of an encyclopedist; and this work he performed in such manner as to merit the gratitude of all succeeding ages". In Orthodox Christianity, the concept of "fathers of the Church" is used somewhat more loosely, with no exhaustive list or end date, with anumber of theologians younger than John Damascene generally included.
^Sahas, Daniel John (7 September 2023).Byzantium and Islam: collected studies on Byzantine-Muslim encounters. Brill. p. 335.ISBN978-90-04-47044-6.
^Meyendorff, John (1964)."Byzantine Views of Islam".Dumbarton Oaks Papers.18:113–132.doi:10.2307/1291209.JSTOR1291209.If we are to believe this traditional account, the information that John was in the Arab administration of Damascus under the Umayyads and had, therefore, a first-hand knowledge of the Arab Moslem civilization, would, of course, be very valuable. Unfortunately, the story is mainly based upon an eleventh- century Arabic life, which in other respects is full of incredible legends. Earlier sources are much more reserved.
^Suzanne Conklin Akbari,Idols in the East: European representations of Islam and the Orient, 1100–1450, Cornell University Press, 2009 p. 204.David Richard Thomas,Syrian Christians under Islam: the first thousand years, Brill 2001 p. 19.
^O'Connor, J.B. (1910), "St. John Damascene",The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company (www.newadvent.org/cathen/08459b.htm).
^Cunningham, M. B. (2011). Farland, I. A.; Fergusson, D. A. S.; Kilby, K.; et al. (eds.).Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press – via Credo Reference.
^abcChase, Frederic H (1958).Jr [Saint John of Damascus: Writings]. Fathers of the Church, Inc. pp. xxix. | url= www.slideshare.net/orthodoxonline/saint-john-damascene-fount-of-knowledg-on-heresies
^Sbaihat, Ahlam (2015), "Stereotypes associated with real prototypes of the prophet of Islam's name till the 19th century". Jordan Journal of Modern Languages and Literature Vol. 7, No. 1, 2015, pp. 21–38.http://journals.yu.edu.jo/jjmll/Issues/vol7no12015/Nom2.pdf
^abJohannes; Chase, Frederic H. (1999).Writings. The fathers of the church (1. short-run repr ed.). Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Pr. p. 155.ISBN978-0-8132-0968-5.
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