John Cassian | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Church Father Theologian,Monk | |
| Born | c. 360[1] Scythia Minor,Roman Empire |
| Died | c. 435 Massilia,Gallia Narbonensis,Western Roman Empire |
| Venerated in | Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Church Anglican Communion |
| Majorshrine | Monastery of St Victor,Marseille |
| Feast | East: February 29th (28th non-leap years) West: July 23 |
John Cassian, also known asJohn the Ascetic andJohn Cassian the Roman (Latin:Ioannes Eremita Cassianus,Ioannes Cassianus, orIoannes Massiliensis;[2]Greek:Ἰωάννης Κάσσιος ὁ Ἐρημίτης;c. AD 360 –c. 435), was aChristian monk andtheologian celebrated in both the Western and Eastern churches for his mystical writings.[3] Cassian is noted for his role in bringing the ideas and practices of earlyChristian monasticism to themedieval West.
Cassian was born around 360, most likely in the region ofScythia Minor (nowDobruja, a historical region shared today byRomania andBulgaria),[4][5][6][7][8][9] although some scholars assume a Gallic origin.[10][11][12] The son of wealthy parents, he received a good education: his writings show the influence ofCicero andPersius.[13] He was bilingual in Latin and Greek.[14]
Cassian mentions having a sister in his first work, theInstitutes, with whom he corresponded in his monastic life; she may have ended up with him in Marseille.[15]
As a young adult he traveled toPalestine with an older friend Germanus, with whom he would spend much of the next twenty-five years. There they entered ahermitage nearBethlehem. After remaining in that community for about three years,[11] they journeyed to thedesert of Scete inEgypt, which was rent by Christian struggles. There they visited a number ofmonastic foundations.
Approximately fifteen years later, about 399, Cassian and Germanus faced theAnthropomorphic controversy provoked in letter form byTheophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria. Cassian noted that the majority of the monks received the message of their patriarch "with bitterness", and charged Theophilus with heresy for impugning the plain teaching of scripture.[16] Following an unsuccessful journey to Alexandria to protest the matter, Cassian and Germanus fled with about 300 otherOrigenist monks. Cassian and Germanus went toConstantinople, where they appealed to thePatriarch of Constantinople,John Chrysostom, for protection. Cassian was ordained adeacon and became a member of the clergy attached to the patriarch while the struggles with the imperial family ensued. When the patriarch was forced intoexile from Constantinople in 404, the Latin-speaking Cassian was sent to Rome to plead his cause beforePope Innocent I.[13]
While he was in Rome, Cassian accepted the invitation to found an Egyptian-stylemonastery in southernGaul, nearMarseille. He may also have spent time as a priest inAntioch between 404 and 415. In any case, he arrived in Marseille around 415. His foundation, theAbbey of St Victor, was a complex of monasteries for both men and women, one of the first such institutes in the West, and served as a model for later monastic development.[10]
Cassian's achievements and writings influencedBenedict of Nursia, who incorporated many of the principles into hismonastic rule, and recommended to his own monks that they read the works of Cassian. Since Benedict's rule is still followed byBenedictine,Cistercian, andTrappist monks, John Cassian's thought still exercises influence over the spiritual lives of thousands of men and women in theLatin Church.[17]
Cassian died in 435 at Marseille.[18]
Cassian came very late into writing and did so only when a request was made by one or more important persons. His sources were the same as those ofEvagrius Ponticus, but he added his own ideas, which were arranged in extensive collections. Evagrius was, however, the single most important influence on Cassian's ideas, due to his reverence for the "Origenist" monks (who also relied predominantly on Evagrius) ofNitria,Kellia, andScetis, three early monastic centres in the desert of the northwesternNile Delta.[14][19]
Around 420, at the request of BishopCastor of Apt in Gallia Narbonensis, Cassian wrote two major spiritual works, theDe institutis coenobiorum (Institutes of the Coenobia) and theConlationes orCollationes patrum in scythica eremo (Conferences of the Desert Fathers). In these, he codified and transmitted the wisdom of theDesert Fathers of Egypt. TheInstitutes deal with the external organization of monastic communities, while theConferences deal with "the training of the inner man and the perfection of the heart".[10]
His books were written inLatin, in a simple, direct style. They were swiftly translated into Greek, which indicates the Eastern monks recognized him as one of their own.[14] Some of his works had been translated intoGeorgian by the 11th century.[20]
TheInstitutes were meant to help Castor to establish acoenobium following the model of Egypt, in contrast to the existing monastic life in Gaul, which included the work ofMartin of Tours. According to Hugh Feiss theInstitutes are a counterweight to Sulpicius Severus’Life of Martin andDialogues, and are an attempt to put order into a movement Cassian regarded as chaotic. Cassian, who insists on manual work, had a higher opinion of and close ties with the monastery on theIsland of Lerins, founded byHonoratus.[14]
In Books 1–4 ofInstitutions, Cassian discusses clothing, prayer and rules of monastic life. Books 5–12 are rules on morality, specifically addressing the eightvices –gluttony,lust,greed,wrath, sadness,listlessness,boasting andhubris – and what to do to cure these vices. In theInstitutions, Cassian discusses a will that is more complex than the will at the heart of the Pelagian message. Willful monks are a contentious problem, and Cassian paid considerable attention to analyzing the will, treating the corrupt will, and chiefly subordinating even the good will for the good of the community and ultimately, the will of God.[21]
Below is an outline of Cassian'sInstitutes:[22]
| Book | Title in Latin | Topics |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | De habitu monachorum | The monastic habit and its allegorical meaning |
| 2 | De canonico nocturnarum orationum et psalmorum modo | Method of praying the psalms: night prayers |
| 3 | De canonico diurnarum orationum et psalmorum modo | Method of praying the psalms: day prayers |
| 4 | De institutis renuntiantium | Rules and instructions for new monks |
| 5 | De spiritu gastrimargiae | First Vice: Gluttony |
| 6 | De spiritu fornicationis | Second Vice: Fornication |
| 7 | De spiritu filargyriae | Third Vice: Love of money |
| 8 | De spiritu irae | Fourth Vice: Anger |
| 9 | De spiritu tristitiae | Fifth Vice: Sadness |
| 10 | De spiritu acediae | Sixth Vice: Listlessness (acēdia) |
| 11 | De spiritu cenodoxiae | Seventh Vice: Vainglory |
| 12 | De spiritu superbiae | Eighth Vice: Pride |
TheConferences, dedicated toPope Leo, to the bishop ofFréjus, and to the monk Helladius, summarize important conversations that Cassian had with elders from the monastery atScetis about principles of the spiritual and ascetic life. This book addresses specific problems of spiritual theology and the ascetic life. It was later read inBenedictine communities after the evening meal,[23] and from the Latin title,Collationes, comes the wordcollation in the sense of "light meal".[24][25]
Outline of Cassian'sConferences:[22]
| Conference | Title in Latin | Topic | Speaker |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | De monachi destinatione vel fine | The goal and end of the monk | Moses (of Scetis) |
| 2 | De discretione | Discernment | Moses |
| 3 | De tribus abrenunitationibus | The three renunciations | Paphnutius (ofScetis) |
| 4 | De concupiscentia carnis ac spiritus | Desires of the flesh | Daniel (of Scetis) |
| 5 | De octo vitiis principalibus | The eight principle vices | Sarapion (of Scetis) |
| 6 | De nece sanctorum | The murder of saintly people | Theodore (of Kellia) |
| 7 | De animae mobilitate et spiritalibus nequitiis | Evil spirits and the soul's changeability | Serenus (of Scetis) |
| 8 | De principatibus | The principalities | Serenus |
| 9 | De oratione | Prayer (disposition, types) | Isaac (of Scetis) |
| 10 | De oratione | Prayer (unceasing, method) | Isaac |
| Conference | Title in Latin | Topics | Speaker |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11 | De perfectione | Perfection | Chaeremon (an anchorite near Panephysis) |
| 12 | De castitate | Chastity | Chaeremon |
| 13 | De protectione Dei | Grace and free will | Chaeremon |
| 14 | De spiritali scientia | Spiritual knowledge, biblical interpretation | Nestoros (an anchorite near Panephysis) |
| 15 | De charismatibus diuinis | Charisms | Nesteros |
| 16 | De amicitia | Friendship | Joseph (an anchorite near Panephysis) |
| 17 | De definiendo | Oaths and promises | Joseph |
| Conference | Title in Latin | Topics | Speaker |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | De tribus generibus monachorum | Three types of monks | Piamun (of Diolcos, a cenobite turned anchorite) |
| 19 | De fine coenobiotae et heremitae | Cenobites and anchorites | John (of Diolcos, an anchorite turned cenobite) |
| 20 | De paenitentiae fine et satisfactionis indicio | Penitence and reparation | Pinufius (of Panephysis, cenobite) |
| 21 | De remissione quinquagensimae | Relaxing during Pentecost | Pinufius |
| 22 | De nocturnis inlusionibus | Dreams and nocturnal emissions | Pinufius |
| 23 | De anamarteto | Sinlessness | Theonas (of Scetis, an anchorite) |
| 24 | De mortificatione | Mortification, renunciation | Abraham (of Diolcos, an anchorite) |
The desert ascetics of Egypt followed a three-step path to mysticism:Purgatio,Illuminatio, andUnitio. These stages correspond to thethree ways of later Catholic theology. During the first level,Purgatio (in Greek,Catharsis), young monks struggled through prayer andascetic practices to gain control of "the flesh"—specifically by purging their gluttony, lust and desire for possessions. This period of purgation, which often took many years, was intended to teach young monks that whatever strength they had to resist these desires (grace) came directly from theHoly Spirit.[citation needed]
At this point, theIlluminatio (theoria in Greek) commenced. During this period the monks practiced the paths to holiness as revealed in the Gospel, identifying strongly with the Christ who taught theSermon on the Mount (found in Matthew 5–7). Many monks took in visitors and students and tended the poor as much as their resources allowed. Many monks died never having moved past this period. The final stage was theUnitio (theosis in Greek), a period in which the soul of the monk was meant to bond with the Spirit of God in a union often described as the marriage of theSong of Solomon (also called the "Song of Songs" or the "Canticle of Canticles"). To find the solitude and peace that this level of mystical awareness demanded, elderly monks often fled into the deep desert or into remote forests.[citation needed]
His asceticism, while rigorous, was tempered by common sense. Cassian says hospitality should override ascetical routine. Even the most contemplative of anchorites should entertain visitors. Both asceticism and ministry are aspects of the practical life.[14]
In hisConferences, Cassian recommended as "absolutely necessary for possessing the perpetual awareness of God" the formula inPsalm 70 (69) v. 2,Deus, in adiutorium meum intende. Domine, ad adiuvandum me festina ("God, incline unto my aid; O Lord, make haste to help me").[26] He says of it:
Not without reason has this verse been selected out of the whole body of Scripture. For it takes up all the emotions that can be applied to human nature and with great correctness and accuracy it adjusts itself to every condition and every attack. It contains an invocation of God in the face of any crisis, the humility of a devout confession, the watchfulness of concern and of constant fear, a consciousness of one's own frailty, the assurance being heard, and confidence in a protection that is always present and at hand, for whoever calls unceasingly on his protector is sure that he is always present. It contains a burning love and charity, an awareness of traps, and a fear of enemies. Seeing oneself surrounded by these day and night, one confesses that one cannot be set free without the help of one's defender. This verse is an unassailable wall, an impenetrable breastplate, and a very strong shield for those who labour under the attack of demons.
— Cassian 1997, p. 381, Tenth Conference, X, 2-4
Benedict of Nursia praises Cassian'sConferences in hisrule[27][28] and use of this formula became part of theLiturgy of the Hours in the Western Church, in which all thecanonical hours, including the minor hours, start with thisversicle, which is omitted only if the hour begins with theInvitatory, the introduction to the first hour said in the day, whether it be the Office of Readings or Morning Prayer.Alphonsus Liguori also cites Cassian's recommendation to use this short prayer continually.[29]
In the West, Cassian's proposition that "the slightest glimmer of goodwill" could be attributed to the human drive was widely regarded as unacceptable in relation to the prosperity of the Augustinianism of the period (Conf. 13.7.1; cf Prosper of AquitaineContra Collatorem; Cassiodorus,Institutiones 1.29;DecretumGelasianum V.7).[30] In hisThirteenth Conference and in writings to the Monks of Lerins, Cassian qualifies this by saying the good will is "stirred" by God:
For when God sees us inclined to will what is good, He meets, guides, and strengthens us: for "At the voice of thy cry, as soon as He shall hear, He will answer thee;" and: "Call upon Me," He says, "in the day of tribulation and I will deliver thee, and thou shalt glorify Me." And again, if He finds that we are unwilling or have grown cold, He stirs our hearts with salutary exhortations, by which a good will is either renewed or formed in us.
— Schaff 2009, p. 428
Cassian finds the will to be insufficient for spiritual progress, and traces this back to the initial sin of pride. Cassian illustrates advanced cases of the will's pathology in theInstitutions, saying these problems began when man "believed himself capable of attaining the glory of the Godhead by hisfreedom of will and hard work." To this end, Cassian believes the renunciate must conquer his will, overcome it, and even kill it.[31]
In regards to demons, Cassian noted that the earliest coenobites would ensure one monk was reciting a prayer, psalmody, or reading at all times, due to their belief that demons were especially prevalent at night. Cassian promotes David's evil spirit repulsing prayer at Ps. 35: 1–3, for demons actively oppose the virtuous life, and could be warded off with prayer.[32]
His third book,On the Incarnation of the Lord, was a defense of orthodox doctrine against the views ofNestorius, and was written at the request of the Archdeacon of Rome, laterPope Leo I. In this book Cassian points out a link between Nestorianism which stresses the humanity of Jesus and Pelagianism which stresses human effort. Later theologians, however, labeled Cassian as "Semipelagian" because he stressed the role of thehuman will, as opposed to Augustine's stress on the totality of grace, in moving towards salvation.[13]
The ideas expressed by Cassian to which critics have pointed as examples of his alleged Semipelagianism are found in hisConferences, in book 3, the Conference of Abbot Paphnutius; book 5, the Conference of Abbot Serapion; and most especially in book 13, the Third Conference of Abbot Chaeremon.[citation needed]
The view that Cassian propounded Semipelagianism has been disputed. Lauren Pristas, writes: "For Cassian, salvation is, from beginning to end, the effect of God's grace. It is fully divine. Salvation, however, is salvation of a rational creature who has sinned through free choice. Therefore, salvation necessarily includes both free human consent in grace and the gradual rehabilitation in grace of the faculty of free choice. Thus Cassian insists salvation is also fully human. His thought, however, is not Semi-Pelagian, nor do readers who submit to the whole corpus emerge Semi-Pelagians."[33] And Augustine Casiday states that "for Cassian ... although sparks of goodwill may exist (which are not directly caused by God), they are totally inadequate and only direct divine intervention can ensure our spiritual progress".[34]
TheLatin Church condemned Semipelagianism in the localCouncil of Orange (529), but recognizes Cassian himself as a saint.[35] It did not endorse Augustine entirely[36] and, while later Catholic theologians accepted Augustine's authority, they interpreted his views in the light of writers such as Cassian.[37]
Augustine Casiday states that Cassian "boldly asserts that God's grace, not humanfree will, is responsible for 'everything which pertains to salvation' - even faith."[38] Some other Orthodox, who do not apply the term "Semi-Pelagian" to their theology, criticize the Roman Catholics for allegedly rejecting Cassian, whom they accept as fully orthodox,[39] and for holding, as, in Casiday's interpretation, thateverything which pertains to salvation comes from God's grace, and so that even the human consent to God's justifying action is itself an effect of grace.[a] This position of the Roman Catholic Church and of Cassian as interpreted by Casiday is attributed by Eastern Orthodox theologianGeorges Florovsky also to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which, he says, "always understood that God initiates, accompanies, and completes everything in the process of salvation", rejecting instead theCalvinist idea ofirresistible grace.[b] Neither Cassian nor any of his teachings have ever been directly or indirectly called into question or condemned by Eastern Orthodox, as they are considered a witness to the Orthodox position.[c]
InThe Book of Mystical Chapters, a compilation of sayings of theChurch Fathers by renowned theologian and early church historian[40]John Anthony McGuckin, Cassian is quoted as saying the following:
The thief on the cross certainly did not receive
the Kingdom of Heaven as a reward for his virtues
but as a grace and a mercy from God.
He can serve as an authentic witness
that our salvation is given to us
only by God's mercy and grace.
All the holy masters knew this
and unanimously taught that perfection in holiness
can be achieved only through humility.
— McGuckin 2003, p. 24
According to some scholars, Cassian is a prominent representative of a monastic movement in southern Gaul which, ca. 425, gave expression to thesoteriological view that much later was called Semipelagianism.[41] This emphasized the role offree will in that the first steps ofsalvation are in the power of the individual, without the need fordivine grace. His thought has been described as a "middle way" betweenPelagianism, which taught that the will alone was sufficient to live a sinless life, and the view ofAugustine of Hippo, which emphasizesoriginal sin and the absolute need for grace.[citation needed]
For instance, Anglican priest and historianOwen Chadwick stated that Cassian held that man can come to God without the intervention of divine grace first;[42] and the Presbyterian theologianB. B. Warfield called Cassian the leader of the monastics in southern Gaul who asserted that men begin their turning to God and that God assists that beginning.[43]
The spiritual traditions of Cassian had an immeasurable effect on Western Europe. Many different western spiritualities, from that of StBenedict of Nursia to that of StIgnatius of Loyola, owe their basic ideas to Cassian.[citation needed]
Pope Gregory I's teaching on the seven deadly sins comes from Cassian, as does much of his teaching on compunction and prayer.Philip Neri used to read Cassian to the laity and would frequently use his work as the starting point for his own addresses.[44] He also influencedJohn Climacus andJohn of Damascus,[14] as well asSaint Dominic,Francis de Sales, andJohn Henry Newman.[44]
Cassian's writings stress the role of prayer and personal asceticism in attaining salvation by contrast with Augustine's writings which stress the role of God's justice and grace (predestination) and take a more negative view of human effort. His teaching on overcoming the eight evil tendencies (See Books 5 to 12 of The Institutes) were the inspiration behind the way the Irish monks practised asceticism, as shown in the Irish Penitentials.[13]
TheInstitutes had a direct influence on organization of monasteries described in theRule of Saint Benedict; Benedict also recommended that ordered selections of theConferences be read to monks under his Rule. Moreover, the monastic institutions Cassian inspired kept learning and culture alive during theEarly Middle Ages, and were often the only institutions that cared for the sick and poor.[citation needed]
His works are excerpted in thePhilokalia (Greek for "love of the beautiful"), theEastern Orthodox compendium on mystical Christian prayer.[citation needed]
Even modern thinkers have been influenced by Cassian's thinking.Michel Foucault was fascinated by the rigorous way Cassian defined and struggled against the "flesh".[45] Perhaps because of investigations like these, Cassian's thought and writings are enjoying a recent popularity even in non-religious circles.
He is asaint of theEastern Orthodox Churches, with afeast day on 29 February. Because this day occurs only once every four years onleap years, official church calendars often transfer his feast to another date (usually 28 February).[46]
He is also a saint of theOriental Orthodox Churches, hisChristology consideredMiaphysite by the Church and his works being relevant in the theological discourse of the 4th and 5th centuries.[47]
TheCatholic Church also ranks him as a saint, with a feast day on 23 July (death anniversary). Like his contemporariesAugustine of Hippo andJohn Chrysostom, he was never formally canonized, a process that came into use several centuries after his death.[10]Pope Urban V referred to him assanctus (a saint) and he was included in the Gallican Martyrology[48] He is included also in theRoman Martyrology with a feast-day on 23 July.[35] In the Irish church, at the beginning of the ninth century, Cassian was commemorated on 25 November, as indicated in theMartyrology of Óengus: "Lasin nEoin Cassian assa érchain corann" (With John Cassian whose crown is very fair). Like the great majority of recognized saints of the church, he is not one of the saints in theGeneral Roman Calendar, but theArchdiocese of Marseilles and somemonastic orders celebrate hismemorial on his feast day.
In 2022, John Cassian was officially added to theEpiscopal Church liturgical calendar with a feast day on 23 July.[49]
Cassian'srelics are kept in an underground chapel in theMonastery of Saint Victor inMarseilles. His head and right hand are in the main church there.[citation needed]
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