Johannes Ockeghem | |
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 Possible posthumous portrait of Ockeghem[n 1] | |
| Born | c. 1410 |
| Died | (1497-02-06)6 February 1497 (aged 86–87) |
| Occupations |
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| Works | List of compositions |
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| Renaissance music |
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| Overview |
Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1410 – 6 February 1497[1]) was a Franco-Flemish composer and singer of earlyRenaissance music. Ockeghem was a significant European composer in the period betweenGuillaume Du Fay andJosquin des Prez,[2] and he was—with his colleagueAntoine Busnois—a prominent European composer in the second half of the 15th century.[3] He was an important proponent of the earlyFranco-Flemish School.
Ockeghem was well associated with other prominent composers of the time, and spent most of his career serving the French royal court underCharles VII,Louis XI andCharles VIII.[4] Numerous poets and musicians lamented his death, includingErasmus,Guillaume Crétin,Jean Molinet and Josquin, who composed the well-knownNymphes des bois for him.
It is thought that Ockeghem's extant works represent only a small part of his entireoeuvre, including around 14 masses, 20 chansons and fewer than 10 motets—though the exact numbers vary due to attribution uncertainties.[5] His better-known works include thecanon-basedMissa prolationum; theMissa cuiusvis toni, which can be sung in any mode; the chansonFors seulement; and the earliest surviving polyphonicRequiem.
The spelling of Ockeghem's name comes from a supposed autograph of his which survived as late as 1885, and was reproduced by Eugène Giraudet, a historian in Tours;[6] the document has since been lost.[4] In 15th-century sources, the spelling "Okeghem" predominates. Other spellings include Ogkegum, Okchem, Hocquegam and Ockegham.
Ockeghem is believed to have been born in theWalloon citySaint-Ghislain,Burgundian Netherlands (nowBelgium). His birthdate is unknown; dates as early as 1410 and as late as 1430 have been proposed.[7] The earlier date is based on the possibility that he knewBinchois inHainaut before the older composer moved fromMons toLille in 1423.[1] Ockeghem would have to have been younger than 15 at the time. This particular speculation derives from Ockeghem's reference, in the lament he wrote on the death of Binchois in 1460, to a chanson by Binchois dated to that time.[8] In this lament, Ockeghem not only honored the older composer by imitating his style, but also revealed some useful biographical information about him.[9] The comment by the poetGuillaume Crétin, in the lament he wrote on Ockeghem's death in 1497, "it was a great shame that a composer of his talents should die before 100 years old", is also often taken as evidence for the earlier birthdate for Ockeghem.
In 1993, documents dating from 1607 were found stating that "Jan Hocquegam" was a native ofSaint-Ghislain in theCounty of Hainaut, which was confirmed by references in 16th-century documents.[10] This suggests that, though he first appears in records in Flanders, he was a native speaker ofPicard.[11] Previously, most biographies surmised that he was born inEast Flanders, either in the town after which he was named (present-dayOkegem, from which his ancestors must have come) or in the neighboring town ofDendermonde (French: Termonde), where the surname Ockeghem occurred in the 14th and 15th century.[12] Occasionally,Bavay, now in theNord department in France, was suggested as his birthplace as well.[13]
Details of his early life are lacking. Like many composers in this period, he started his musical career as a chorister, although the exact location of his education is unknown:Mons, a town near Saint-Ghislain that had at least two churches with competent music schools, has been suggested.[8] The first actual documented record of Ockeghem is from theOnze-Lieve-Vrouwe cathedral inAntwerp, where he was employed in June 1443 as a "left-hand choir singer" ("left-handers" sang composed music, "right-handers" sang chant). He probably sang under the direction ofJohannes Pullois, whose employment also dates from that year.[14] This church was a distinguished establishment, and it was likely here that Ockeghem became familiar with the English compositional style, which some suggest influenced musical practices on the continent in the late 15th century.[1]
Ockeghem probably studied withGilles Binchois, and at least was closely associated with him at the Burgundian court. SinceAntoine Busnois wrote a motet in honor of Ockeghem sometime before 1467, it is probable that those two were acquainted as well; and writers of the time often link Dufay, Busnois and Ockeghem. Although Ockeghem's musical style differs considerably from that of the older generation, it is probable that he acquired his basic technique from them, and as such can be seen as a direct link from the Burgundian style to the next generation of Netherlanders, such asObrecht and Josquin.
Between 1446 and 1448 Ockeghem served, along with singer and composerJean Cousin, at the court ofCharles I, Duke of Bourbon inMoulins, now in central France.[1] During this service he became the first among the singing chaplains to appear in the court records.[1] Around 1452 he moved toParis where he served asmaestro di cappella to the French court, as well as treasurer of the collegiate church of St. Martin, atTours.[1] In addition to serving at the French court – both forCharles VII andLouis XI[1] – he held posts atNotre Dame de Paris and at St. Benoît. He is known to have travelled toSpain in 1470, as part of a diplomatic mission for the King, which was a complex affair attempting both to dissuade Spain from joining an alliance with England and Burgundy against France, and to arrange a marriage betweenIsabella I of Castile andCharles, Duke of Guyenne (the brother of king Louis XI).[8] After the death of Louis XI (1483), not much is known for certain about Ockeghem's whereabouts, though it is known that he went toBruges and Tours, and he probably died in the latter town since he left a will there. The number of laments written on Ockeghem's death on 6 February 1497 suggests the respect he commanded among contemporaries; among the most famous of the musical settings of these many poems isNymphes des bois by Josquin des Prez.[8] Other authors of these poems included Molinet andDesiderius Erasmus;Johannes Lupi provided another musical setting.[15]
Ockeghem's output was limited relative to the length of his career and his established reputation, and some of his work was lost. Many works formerly attributed to him are now presumed to be by other composers; Ockeghem's total output of reliably attributed compositions, as with many of the most famous composers of the time (such as Josquin), has shrunk with time.[8] Surviving reliably attributed works include some 14masses (including aRequiem), an isolated Credo (Credo sine nomine), fivemotets, amotet-chanson (adeploration on the death of Binchois), and 21chansons.[1] Thirteen of Ockeghem's masses are preserved in theChigi codex, a Flemish manuscript dating to around 1500.[16] HisMissa pro Defunctis is the earliest surviving polyphonic Requiem mass (another possibly earlier setting by Dufay has been lost). Some of his works, alongside compositions by his contemporaries, are included inPetrucci'sHarmonice musices odhecaton (1501), the first collection of music published using moveable type.[17]
Dating Ockeghem's works is difficult, as there are almost no external points of reference, except of course the death of Binchois (1460) for which Ockeghem composed a motet-chanson. TheMissa Caput is almost certainly an early work, since it follows on an anonymous English mass of the same title dated to the 1440s, and his late masses may include theMissa Ma maistresse andMissa Fors seulement, in view of both his innovative treatment of thecantus firmus and his increasingly homogeneous textures later in his life.[8]
Ockeghem used thecantus firmus technique in about half of his masses; the earliest of these masses used head motifs at the start of the individual movements, a common practice around 1440 but one that had already become archaic by around 1450.[8] Three of his masses,Missa Ma maistresse,Missa Fors seulement, andMissa Mi-mi are based on chansons he wrote himself, and use more than one voice of the chanson, foreshadowing theparody mass techniques of the 16th century. In his remaining masses, including theMissa cuiusvis toni andMissa prolationum, no borrowed material has been found, and the works seem to have been freely composed.[8][18]
Ockeghem would sometimes place borrowed material in the lowest voice, such as in theMissa Caput, one of three masses written in the mid-15th century based on that fragment of chant from the EnglishSarum Rite.[8] Other characteristics of Ockeghem's compositional technique include variation in voices' rhythmic character so as to maintain their independence.[1]
Ockeghem influenced Josquin des Prez and the subsequent generation of Netherlandish composers; he was known throughout Europe for his expressive music and his technical skill.[9] Two of the most notablecontrapuntal achievements of the 15th century include hisMissa prolationum, which consists entirely ofmensuration canons, and theMissa cuiusvis toni, designed to be performed in any of the differentmodes, but even these technique-oriented pieces demonstrate his uniquely expressive use of vocal ranges and tonal language.[15][neutrality isdisputed] Ockeghem's use of wide-ranging and rhythmically active bass lines was distinctive among composers in the Netherlandish Schools, and may be because this was his voice range.
Thomas Tallis'Missa Puer natus est nobis has cryptic, puzzle-like patterns in the note lengths of the cantus firmus that resemble the mathematical "games" of Ockeghem's cantus firmi.[19]
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