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Jñāna yoga

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One of three classical paths for moksha in Hinduism
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Jnana yoga (IAST:Jñāna yoga), also known asjnanamarga (jñāna mārga), is one of thethree classical paths (margas) formoksha (liberation)[1][2] in theBhagavad Gita, which emphasizes the "path of knowledge"[3] or the "path of self-realization".[4] The other two arekarma yoga (path of action,karma-mārga) andbhakti yoga (path of loving devotion to a personal god,bhakti-mārga).[1][5][6] Modern interpretations of Hindu texts have led the fourfold classification to includeRaja yoga, that is, meditation as described in theYoga Sutras of Patanjali.[7]

Jñāna yoga is a spiritual practice that pursues knowledge through questions such as 'Who am I?' and 'What am I?' among others.[8][9] The practitioner studies usually with the aid of aguru, meditates, reflects, and reaches liberating insights on the nature of one's own Self (Atman, soul) and its relationship to the metaphysical concept calledBrahman in Hinduism.[4][10][9] Thejñāna-mārga ideas are discussed in ancient and medieval eraHindu scriptures and texts such as theUpanishads and theBhagavad Gita.[4][11][12]

Etymology

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Jnana, sometimes transcribed asgyaan or gnan, means "knowledge" inSanskrit.[13] The rootjna- is cognate to the Englishknow, as well as to the Greekγνώ- (as in γνῶσιςgnosis). Its antonym isajnana "ignorance".

Definition

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Jnana is knowledge, which refers to any cognitive event that is correct and true over time. It particularly refers to knowledge inseparable from the total experience of its object, especially about reality (non-theistic schools) or a supreme being (theistic schools).[14] In Hinduism, it is knowledge which givesMoksha, or spiritual liberation while alive (jivanmukti) or after death (videhamukti).[5] Jñāna yoga is the path towards attainingjnana.

It is one of the three classical types ofyoga mentioned inHindu philosophies, the other two beingkarma yoga andbhakti.[5] In modern classifications,classical yoga, being calledRaja yoga, is mentioned as a fourth one, an extension introduced by SwamiVivekananda.[15]

Classical yoga emphasizes the practice ofdhyana (meditation), and this is an element of all three classical paths in Hinduism, includingjñāna yoga.[5][16] In the Bhagavad Gita,jnana is equated withsamkhya (yoga), the discernment ofpurusha, pure consciousness, as different fromprakriti, matter and material desires. This discernment is possible when the mind has been calmed by the practice ofdhyana, meditation.

According to Jones and Ryan,jnana injnana yoga context is better understood as "realization or gnosis", referring to a "path of study" wherein one knows the unity between self and ultimate reality called Brahman in Hinduism. This explanation is found in the ancientUpanishads and theBhagavad Gita.[17] This is typical for Advaita Vedanta, wherejnana involves the recognition of the identity ofjivatman and Brahman. According to Bimal Matilal,jnana yoga inAdvaita Vedanta connotes both primary and secondary sense of its meaning, that is "self-consciousness, awareness" in the absolute sense and relative "intellectual understanding" respectively.[5] While contemporary Advaita Vedanta and neo-Vedanta incorporate meditation, Adi Shankara relied on insight alone, based on theMahavakya. Neo-Advaita also emphasizes direct insight.[note 1]

Of the three different paths to liberation,jnana marga andkarma marga are the more ancient, traceable to Vedic era literature.[6][18] All three paths are available to any seeker, chosen based on inclination, aptitude and personal preference,[19][20] and typically elements of all three to varying degrees are practiced by many Hindus.[6][21]

The path of knowledge is intended for those who prefer philosophical reflection, and it requires study and meditation.[22][20][23]

Jnana yoga encourages its adeptsto think and speak of themselves in the third person as a way to distance themselves from the Ego and detach theireternal self (atman) from the body related one (maya).[24]

Upanishads

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In theUpanishads,jnana yoga aims at the realization of the oneness of the individual self (Atman) and the ultimate Self (Brahman).[25] These teachings are found in theearly Upanishads.[9] According to Chambliss, the mystical teachings within these Upanishads discuss "the way of knowledge of the Self", a union, the realization that the Self (Atman) and the Brahman are logical.[26]

The teachings in the Upanishads have been interpreted in a number of ways, ranging from non-theistic monism to theistic dualism.[12][27] In former, rituals are not necessary, and a path of introspection and meditation is emphasized for the correct knowledge (jnana) of self. In latter, it is the full and correct knowledge of a Vishnu avatar or Shiva or Shakti (Goddess) that is emphasized. In all its various interpretations, the paths are not necessarily mutually exclusive. AJnana yogi may also practiceKarma yoga orBhakti yoga or both, and differing levels of emphasis.[12][27]

According to Robert Roeser, the precepts of Jnana yoga in Hinduism were likely systematized by about 500 BCE, earlier than Karma yoga and Bhakti yoga.[28]

Bhagavad Gita

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In the Bhagavad Gita,jnana yoga is also referred to asbuddhi yoga and its goal is self-realization.[29] The text considersjnana marga as the most difficult, slow, confusing for those who prefer it because it deals with "formless reality", theavyakta. It is the path that intellectually oriented people tend to prefer.[30]

The chapter 4 of theBhagavad Gita is dedicated to the general exposition of Jnana yoga, while chapters 7 and 16 discuss its theological andaxiological aspects.[31][32][33]Krishna says that jñāna is the purest, and a discovery of one'sAtman:

Truly, there is nothing here as pure as knowledge.In time, he who is perfected in yoga finds that in his own Atman.

— Bhagavad Gita 4.38, Translator: Jeaneane D. Fowler[34]

Traditions

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TheAdvaita philosopherAdi Shankara gave primary importance to jñāna yoga for the "knowledge of the absolute" (Brahman), while theVishishtadvaita commentatorRamanujar perceived knowledge only as a condition of devotion.[3]

Classical Advaita Vedanta

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Behaviors

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Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana Yoga to attainmoksha. It consists of fourfold attitudes,[35] or behavioral qualifications:[36][37]

  1. Discrimination (Nityānitya vastu viveka (नित्यानित्य वस्तु विवेकम्), or simplyviveka) — The ability to correctly discern (viveka) between the unchanging, permanent, eternal (nitya) and the changing, transitory, temporary (anitya).
  2. Dispassion of fruits (Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फल भोगविरागम्), or simplyvairagya) — The dispassionate indifference (vairagya) to the fruits, to enjoyments of objects (artha phala bhoga) or to the other worlds (amutra) after rebirth.
  3. Six virtues (Śamādi ṣatka sampatti (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति), or simplysatsampat) —
    1. Śama,temperance of mind
    2. Dama, temperance of sense organs (voluntary self-restraints[note 2])
    3. Uparati, withdrawal of mind from sensory objects[note 3]
    4. Titikṣa, forbearance
    5. Śraddhā, faith
    6. Samādhāna, concentration of mind
  4. Drive, longing (Mumukṣutva (मुमुक्षुत्वम्)) — intense yearning formoksha from the state of ignorance[35]

Practices

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Jnanayoga for Advaitins consists of three practices:[37]sravana (hearing),manana (thinking) andnididhyasana (meditation).[41] This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of theBrihadaranyaka Upanishad:[42][43]

  • Sravana literally means hearing, and broadly refers to perception and observations typically aided by a counsellor or teacher (guru),[44] wherein the Advaitin listens and discusses the ideas, concepts, questions and answers.[41][42]
  • Manana refers to thinking on these discussions and contemplating over the various ideas based onsvadhyaya andsravana.[42][44][45]
  • Nididhyāsana refers to meditation,[web 1] realization and consequent conviction of the truths, non-duality and a state where there is a fusion of thought and action, knowing and being.[46][42]

These practices, with the help of aguru are believed to lead to correct knowledge, which destroysavidya, psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman.[47]

Shaivism

[edit]

Both the theistic and monistic streams ofShaivism includejnana yoga ideas, along with those related tokarma yoga, and in the case of Saiva Siddhanta ideas related tobhakti yoga. The Shaivism traditions do not consider renunciation necessary for practicing jnana yoga, leaving ascetic yogi lifestyle optional.[48] Spirituality can be pursued along with active life (karma), according to Shaiva traditions, and it believes that this does not hinder ones ability to journey towards self (Shiva within) realization. The traditions dwell into this integration of karma yoga with jnana yoga, such as by ranking daily behavior and activity that is done by choice and when not necessary as higher in spiritual terms than activity that is impulsive or forced.[48]

The methodology of sravana, manana and nididhyasana similar to Advaita Vedanta are also found in various traditions of Shaivism. However,nistha orsamadhi is sometimes added in Shaiva methodology.[49] The meditational aspects of Shaivism focus on thenirguna form of Supreme Reality (Shiva).[50]

Vaishnavism

[edit]

ThePancharatra (agama) texts ofVaishnavism, along with its Bhagavata (Krishna, Rama, Vishnu) tradition, are strongly influenced byjnana yoga ideas of the Upanishads.[50] However, Vaishnavism also incorporates Bhakti yoga concepts of loving devotion to the divine Supreme personally selected by the devotee, insaguna form, both in silent meditational and musical expressive styles.[50]

The aim of jnana yoga in Vaishnavism differs from that in other schools. Advaita, for example, considers jnana yoga as the path to nondual self-knowledge and moksha. Vaishnavism, in contrast, considers it a condition of devotion.[51]

Shaktism

[edit]

The Shaktism literature on goddess such asKularnava Tantra highlightjnana marga as important to liberation. It differentiates between two kinds ofjnana: one it calls knowledge that comes from Agama texts, and another it namesviveka (insight). The Shaktism literature then adds that both lead to the knowledge of Brahman, but the first one is in the form of sound (shabdabrahman), while the insight from within is the ultimate truth (parabrahman).[52]

Some Shakta texts, such as theSita Upanishad, combine yoga of action and knowledge as a path to liberation. TheDevi Gita, a classic text of Shaktism, dedicates chapter 4 toJnana yoga, stating that a Jnana yogi understands and realizes that there is no difference between the individual soul and herself as the supreme Self.[53] The discussion of Jnana yoga continues through the later chapters of theDevi Gita.[54]

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^See for exampleH. W. L. Poonja, who regarded knowledge alone to be enough for liberation.
  2. ^Example self-restraints mentioned in Hindu texts: one must refrain from any violence that causes injury to others, refrain from starting or propagating deceit and falsehood, refrain from theft of other's property, refrain from sexually cheating on one's partner, and refrain from avarice.[38][39][40]
  3. ^nivartitānāmeteṣāṁ tadvyatiriktaviṣayebhya uparamaṇamuparatirathavā vihitānāṁ karmaṇāṁ vidhinā parityāgaḥ[Vedāntasāra, 21]

References

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  1. ^abP. T. Raju (1985).Structural Depths of Indian Thought. State University of New York Press. pp. 7–8.ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4.
  2. ^Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012).The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 89–93.ISBN 978-1-84519-346-1.
  3. ^abFlood 1996, p. 127.
  4. ^abcJames G. Lochtefeld (2002).The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 321,93–94.ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  5. ^abcdeMatilal 2005, p. 4928.
  6. ^abcKlaus K. Klostermaier (2007).A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition. State University of New York Press. pp. 119–120.ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4.
  7. ^Roderick Hindery (1978).Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 26–27.ISBN 978-81-208-0866-9.
  8. ^Richard Dewey Mann (1984).The Light of Consciousness: Explorations in Transpersonal Psychology. State University of New York Press. pp. 21–25.ISBN 978-0-87395-905-6.
  9. ^abc[a]Ravi Dykema (2011).Yoga for Fitness and Wellness. Cengage. pp. 10–11.ISBN 978-0-8400-4811-0.;
    [b]Orlando O. Espín; James B. Nickoloff (2007).An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. p. 676.ISBN 978-0-8146-5856-7.;
    [c]John M. Rector (2014).The Objectification Spectrum. Oxford University Press. pp. 198–201.ISBN 978-0-19-935542-6.
  10. ^Stephen Phillips (2009).Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Columbia University Press. pp. 178–182.ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8.
  11. ^Jean Varenne (1989).Yoga and the Hindu Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 234.ISBN 978-81-208-0543-9.
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  13. ^Apte 1965, p. 457.
  14. ^"jnana (Indian religion) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved15 May 2012.
  15. ^De Michelis 2005.
  16. ^Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 73.
  17. ^Jones & Ryan 2006, pp. 2, 215.
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  19. ^Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002).Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 371–373.ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.[permanent dead link]
  20. ^abM. V. Nadkarni (2016).The Bhagavad-Gita for the Modern Reader: History, interpretations and philosophy. Taylor & Francis. pp. 45–46.ISBN 978-1-315-43898-6.
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  22. ^Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002).Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 334–335,371–373.ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.[permanent dead link]
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  27. ^abW. Horosz; Tad Clements (2012).Religion and Human Purpose: A Cross Disciplinary Approach. Springer Science. pp. 257–258.ISBN 978-94-009-3483-2.
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  30. ^Eknath Easwaran (2011).Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: A Contemporary Guide to Yoga, Meditation, and Indian Philosophy. Nilgiri Press. pp. 118, 281.ISBN 978-1-58638-068-7.
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  32. ^Winthrop Sargeant (2009). Christopher Key Chapple (ed.).The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition. State University of New York Press. pp. xiii–xvii,xxviii–xxix,223–241,610–612.ISBN 978-1-4384-2842-0.
  33. ^Catherine A. Robinson (2014).Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The Song of the Lord. Taylor & Francis. pp. 50–57,117–119.ISBN 978-1-134-27891-6.
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  39. ^James Lochtefeld, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York,ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 777
  40. ^Rao, G. H. (1926), The Basis of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, 37(1), pp 19-35
  41. ^abMayeda 1992, p. xvii.
  42. ^abcdK. Ramakrishna Rao; Anand C. Paranjpe (2015).Psychology in the Indian Tradition. Springer. pp. 6–7,177–178, 215.ISBN 978-81-322-2440-2.
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  44. ^abDeutsch 1973, pp. 106–110.
  45. ^Robert P. Waxler; Maureen P. Hall (2011).Transforming Literacy: Changing Lives Through Reading and Writing. Emerald. pp. 105–106.ISBN 978-0-85724-628-8.
  46. ^Dalal 2009, p. 16.
  47. ^Śaṅkarācārya; Sengaku Mayeda (2006).A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara. SUNY Press. pp. 78–79.ISBN 978-8120827714.
  48. ^abK. Sivaraman (1973).Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective: A Study of the Formative Concepts, Problems, and Methods of Śaiva Siddhānta. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 371,392–397.ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5.
  49. ^K. Sivaraman (1973).Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective: A Study of the Formative Concepts, Problems, and Methods of Śaiva Siddhānta. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 384,388–391.ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5.
  50. ^abcKarine Schomer; W. H. McLeod (1987).The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 57,42–43,140–141.ISBN 978-81-208-0277-3.
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Sources

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Printed sources
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Web-sources
  1. ^Oxford Index,nididhyāsana


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