Jiva (Sanskrit:जीव,IAST:jīva), also referred asJivātman, is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force inHinduism andJainism.[1] The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-rootjīv, which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'.[2]: 211 [3] Thejiva, as a metaphysical entity, has been described in various scriptures such as theBhagavad Gita and theUpanishads. Each subschool ofVedanta describes the role of thejiva with the other metaphysical entities in varying capacities. The closest translation into English and Abrahamic philosophies would be thesoul.
A common metaphysical entity discussed in the scriptures (such as the Bhagavad Gita, Upanishad and Vachanamrut) in the seven schools ofVedanta is thejiva oratman: the soul or self.[4]
Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita contains verses describing thejiva. For example, thejiva is described as eternal and indestructible in chapter 2, verse 20:
न जायते म्रियते वा कदाचिन्
नायं भूत्वा भविता वा न भूयः ।
अजो नित्यः शाश्वतोऽयं पुराणो
न हन्यते हन्यमाने शरीरे
"The soul is unborn and eternal, everlasting and primeval. It is not slain by the slaying of the body."
— Bhagavad Gita 2.20, "[2]: 225
बालाग्रशतभागस्य शतधा कल्पितस्य च । भागो जीवः स विज्ञेयः स चानन्त्याय कल्पते ॥ ९ ॥[1]
TheShvetashvatara Upanishad compares thejiva and theParamatma to two friendly birds sitting on the same tree:
समाने वृक्षे पुरुषो निमग्नोऽनीशया शोचति मुह्यमानः । जुष्टं यदा पश्यत्यन्यमीशमस्य महिमानमिति वीतशोकः ॥ ७ ॥[2]
Swaminarayan has described the nature of thejiva in his discourse inVachanamrut Jetalpur 2:
The jiva is uncuttable, unpiercable, immortal, formed of consciousness, and the size of an atom. You may also ask, 'Where does the jiva reside?' Well, it resides within the space of the heart, and while staying there, it performs different functions. From there, when it wants to see, it does so through the eyes; when it wants to hear sounds, it does so through the ears; it smells all types of smells through the nose; it tastes through the tongue; and through the skin, it experiences the pleasures of all sensations. In addition, it thinks through the mind, contemplates through the citta [one of the inner faculties] and forms convictions through the intelligence [buddhi]. In this manner, through the ten senses and the four inner faculties, it perceives all of the sense-objects [i.e objects of sensorial perception'. It pervades the entire body from head to toe, yet is distinct from it. Such is the nature of the jiva.
— Vachanamrut Jetalpur 2, :[2]: 211
Vedanta is one of the six schools (darshanam) of Hindu philosophy, and it contains subschools that have derived their beliefs fromthe Upanishads, theBrahma Sutras and theBhagavad Gita. The aforementioned three scriptures are commonly referred to as thePrasthantrayi.
TheAdvaita (non-dualist) Darshan posits the existence of only one entity,Brahman. It considers all distinctions ultimately false since differentiation requires more than one entity. Those distinctions empirically perceived, along with those expounded in thePrasthanatrayi, are accounted for within this school by the recognition of a relative reality (vyavaharik satta).[6]: 188 One such distinction is that betweenjivas, or souls, and Brahman. Understood through the paradigm of relative reality,jivas are cloaked bymaya—avidya, or ignorance—a state in which they are not able to realize their oneness with Brahman.[6]: 189 Within Advaita philosophy, the nature of the Jiva is described using three theories or metaphors:Pratibimba-vāda (theory of reflection), Avaccheda-vāda (theory of limitation), and Ābhāsa-vāda (theory of appearance).[7] According toPratibimba-vāda, thejiva consists of a reflection of theatman, and the mirror on which the reflection occurs is ignorance (avidya). This metaphor clarifies that theatman andjiva are not distinct, even though they appear to be so, just as one's reflection in the mirror appears to be distinct from oneself but is actually identical with one.Avaccheda-vāda denies that consciousness can be reflected, and instead understands thejiva as a limitation (upadhi) of theatman. It is limited and appears to be separated from other selves because of ignorance.[8]
TheBhedhabheda Darshan, founded by Nimbarka, maintains thatjivas are at once distinct and part of Brahman, a middle ground of sorts between the extremes of Advaita, utter oneness, and Dvaita, utter distinctness.[9] This notion of difference yet non-difference is commonly depicted through an analogy: just as rays originate from the sun but are spatio-temporally distinct from it, so toojivas are parts of the whole that is Brahman. Another analogy given is that of sparks emitted from a fire. The sparks, composed of same substance as fire, are non-different (abheda) from the fire. They are also different (bheda), located in different place from the fire from which they originated. Yet another analogy given is of ocean and its waves, which shows that even though the bhedabheda darshan entails that Brahman has parts andjivas are part of Brahman, this does not meanjivas lessen its perfection, just as the waves of the ocean do not lessen the amount of water present in the ocean.[10]
Founded byMadhva, theDvaita (dualist) Darshan rejects the Advaita (non-dualist) notion of one ultimate reality. It propounds a duality of five kinds, the most fundamental of which is that betweenjivas andIshvara. Ajiva is differentiated from God orIshvara due to thejiva’s dependence onIshvara; this state is an indication of eternal, ontological distinction.[11] Unique to this school is the idea of a hierarchy of souls, evocative ofpredestination. Within the system, some souls are inherently and eternally destined for liberation, others for hell and still others for migration through the cycle of birth and death.[12]: 267 It is in this cycle where jivas have the opportunity to perform positive or negative deeds (karmas), and make spiritual efforts to break free of it, known as liberation (moksha).[13]
TheVishishtadvaita Darshan, proposed byRamanuja, maintains an ontological distinction betweenjivas and God. However, unlike in the Dvaita Darshan, the distinction is qualified. Thejiva still remains dependent on God for its qualities and volition.[14]: 234 Ramanuja uses the doctrine of the body and the soul (sarira andsariri) to explain the relationship between God and thejivas. Thejivas constitutes the body of God, and God is the soul of thejivas. Using this doctrine, Ramanuja is able to maintain an ontological distinction between God and thejivas, while still demonstrating their qualified non-duality.[15]
Vishishtadvaita holds, like otherdarshanas, that the self ischetan, a conscious being that is made up of consciousness.[14]: 235 It refers tojiva,atman,cit, andcetana as synonyms.[16] The school offers many rebuttals against the Advaita conception, one of which addresses the way in which Advaita'sjiva, Brahman, may be in a state of ignorance. The Vishishtadvaita Darshan argues that if ignorance is not a quality of Brahman, then the notion of non-duality is contradicted.[17] Ramanuja compares the consciousness of the jiva, as an atman, to the relationship between a lamp and the light it emits:[18]: 235
The one luminous substance exists as light and as the possessor of light....possesses luminosity, because it illuminates both its own form and that of others. But it behaves as a quality of that luminous substance....In this same way, the self has the form of consciousness but also has the quality of consciousness
— Melkote vol. 1: 89, 90,[18]: 235–236
Unlike other schools, Vishishtadvaita philosophy proposes that moksha (liberation) is not just the end oftransmigration, but also a sense of bliss and joy found in the contemplation of God and living a life of devotion, as a result of which God will aid in grantingmoksha.[19]
TheShuddadvaita Darshan, proposed byVallabhacharya, has a concept of "nitya-sambandha" which means eternal relationship betweenjiva andBrahman (Parabrahman). Thejiva's inherent nature is divine, pure, and spiritual. Thejiva's ultimate purpose is to engage in a loving devotion to Krishna (Supreme Brahman), and liberation is attained through divine grace and the acceptance of thejiva's loving surrender to Krishna. Vallabhacharya uses an analogy between fire and its sparks, where jivas are sparks emerging from God's fire, tiny yet sharing the same essence.[20]
TheAcintya Bheda Abheda, proposed by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, maintains thatjiva andBrahman are same (abheda) and different (bheda) and the relationship is inconceivable in thought (acintya).[18]: 283 Jiva Goswami, one of the main scholars in the Caitanya Vaisnava school, offers a definition of the self that shares many characteristics of other schools but is distinctly aligned with the Bhedhabhedha position that thejiva is a part ofBrahman:
Furthermore, it has the intrinsic characteristics of being an apprehender, agent and qualitative experiencer, and by its own nature and at all times it is an inherent part of indwelling Lord.
— Jiva Goswami,[18]: 287
The philosophy proposed by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu accepts that the jiva is aware and possesses distinct qualities. It is neither god, human or animal, and is separate from the senses and mind. It is unchanging, possessing consciousness and bliss, and pervades the body. Whilst the body and mind require a jiva to function, the jiva's awareness and existence is not dependant on anything. Goswami also describes that "there is a differentself in each body, each one an inherent part of the Lord".[5]
TheAkshar-Purushottam Darshan, the teachings ofSwaminarayan as interpreted by theBAPS,[21] centers around the existence of five eternal realities, as stated in two of Swaminarayan’s sermons documented in theVachanamrut, Gadhada 1.7 and Gadhada 3.10:
Puruṣottama Bhagavān,Akṣarabrahman,māyā,īśvara andjīva – these five entities are eternal.[22]
From all the Vedas, Purāṇas, Itihāsa and Smṛti scriptures, I have gleaned the principle thatjīva,māyā,īśvara,Brahman andParameśvara are all eternal.[22]
Thejiva is defined as a distinct, individual soul, i.e., a finite sentient being.Jivas are bound bymaya, which hides their true self, which is characterized by eternal existence,consciousness and bliss. There are an infinite number ofjivas. They are extremely subtle, indivisible, unpierceable, ageless and immortal. While residing within the heart, ajiva pervades the entire body by its capacity to know (gnānshakti), making it animate. It is the form of knowledge (gnānswarūp) as well as the knower (gnātā). Thejiva is the performer of virtuous and immoral actions (karmas) and experiences the fruits of these actions. It has been eternally bound bymaya; as a result, it roams within thecycle of birth and death. Birth is when ajiva acquires a new body, and death is when it departs from its body. Just as one abandons one's old clothes and wears new ones, thejiva renounces its old body and acquires a new one.[2]
There are important similarities between the jiva and thepuruṣa ofSamkhya-Yoga. The most visible similarity is that both thejiva andpuruṣa are part of a dualism.[23] Just like Samkhya's dualism betweenpuruṣa andprakriti, there is a similar dualism between thejiva andajiva in Jainism.[24]: 77 Both thejiva andpuruṣa are also said to be numerous.[24]: 73 TheSamkhyakarika states:[25]
Since birth, death, and the instruments of life are allotted severally; since occupations are not at once universal; and since qualities affect variously; multitude of souls (puruṣa) is demonstrated
— (Samkhya karika Verse 18) ·
Relatedly, eachjiva is, just like apuruṣa in Samkhya, qualitatively distinct from anotherjiva so that each can be termed their "own self".[24]: 77
TheNyaya school of philosophy also shares similarities to the Vedanta schools, in that there is the belief that the jiva is eternal, experiences the fruits of its good and bad deeds (karma), and undergoesreincarnation. However unlike other schools where the jiva is the source of consciousness, in the Nyaya school, consciousness is an attribute that only occurs when a jiva associates with a mind. Furthermore, Nyaya schools believe liberation to be a complete absence of suffering, rather than a state of bliss and happiness.[26]
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