Until theMeiji period (1868–1912), thejingū-ji (神宮寺,shrine temple) were places of worship composed of aBuddhist temple and aShinto shrine, both dedicated to a localkami.[1] These complexes were born when a temple was erected next to a shrine to help itskami with its karmic problems. At the time,kami were thought to be also subjected tokarma, and therefore in need of a salvation onlyBuddhism could provide. Having first appeared during the Nara period (710–794),jingū-ji remained common for over a millennium until, with few exceptions, they were destroyed in compliance with theKami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868.Seiganto-ji is aTendai temple part of theKumano SanzanShinto shrine complex, and as such can be considered one of the few shrine-temples still extant.[2]
When Buddhism arrived in Japan, it encountered some resistance from pre-existing religious institutions and beliefs. One of the first efforts to reconcile pre-existing Japanese religion with Chinese Buddhism (in what would later be calledshinbutsu shūgō, or amalgamation ofkami andbuddhas) was made in the 8th century during theNara period with the founding of so-calledjungūji orshrine-temples, religious complexes consisting of a shrine and a temple.[note 1][3][4]
The first shrine-temple ever was very probablyUsa Hachiman-gū, where a temple called Miroku-ji was completed in 779, however the earliest clearly documented case is that of a man who in 749 in Kashima,Ibaraki Prefecture built a temple next to a shrine.[5] Behind the inclusion within a shrine of Buddhist religious objects was the idea that thekami were lost beings in need of liberation through the power of Buddhism.[4]Kami were then thought to be subject tokarma and reincarnation like human beings, and early Buddhist stories tell how that the task of helping sufferingkami was assumed by wandering monks.[6] During his wanderings, some localkami would appear in a dream to a monk, telling him about his problems.[6] To improve thekami's karma through rites and the reading of sūtras, the monk would build a temple next to thekami's existing shrine.[6] The building of temples at shrines produced shrine-temple complexes, which accelerated the process of amalgamation of the two religions.[3] As a result of the creation of shrine-temples, many shrines that had until then been just an open-air site, in keeping with tradition, became Buddhist-style groupings of buildings.[7] In this fashion, Buddhism took over many sites that had until then been dedicated to localkami beliefs.
Kūkai himself left writings that make it clear he saw no problem in a mixed institution like thejingū-ji. There, Buddhist clergy would routinely recitesutras on behalf of akami, to guide him or her tosatori. The institution had the government's approval and was meant on one side to be a tool to spread Buddhism to the provinces, on the other as a way to install religious representatives of the government there.[5] During the Heian period a great number of temples were built next to shrines, but the termjingū-ji itself tended to disappear, suggesting that temples were taking over control of the shrines. How pervasive was Buddhism can be inferred from the fact that evenIse Grand Shrine, a place considered even today the holiest of Shinto shrines, in 1868 included almost 300 Buddhist temples and practiced Buddhism.[8] This in spite of strict rules which forbade Buddhism within the shrine itself.[note 2]
Because none of the very few extantjingū-ji is intact, their composition is known only through old drawings and paintings. We know that the temple part of the shrine-temple complex consisted of several buildings, among them amain hall (honji-dō (本地堂)),[note 3] apagoda, a Buddhist gate (mon) and abetsu-in (別院; the monks' residence).[9] The main priest was tellingly calledshasō (社僧) or "shrine Buddhist monk", and was both a shrine priest and a Buddhist monk.
Two examples, which are however just recent reconstructions, are Kamo Jingū-ji (鴨神宮寺) in Kyoto and Kasuga Taisha Jingu-ji (春日大社神宮寺) inNara.[9]
At the end of the 8th century, in what is considered the second stage of the amalgamation, thekamiHachiman was declared to be tutelary deity of theDharma and a little bit later abodhisattva.[3] Shrines for him started to be built at temples (giving birth to the so-calledtemple-shrines), marking an important step ahead in the process of amalgamation ofkami andBuddhism.[3] When the great Buddha atTōdai-ji inNara was built, within the temple grounds was also erected a shrine for Hachiman, according to the legend because of a wish expressed by thekami himself.[6] Hachiman considered the shrine his due reward for having helped the temple find the gold and copper mines from which the metal for the great statue had come.[6] After this, temples in the entire country adopted tutelarykami (chinju (鎮守/鎮主), enshrining them in specially built shrines calledchinjusha (lit. "tutelary shrine").[3]
A variant of the jingū-ji was themiyadera (宮寺; literally "shrine temple").Miyadera were temples founded and staffed by Buddhist monks, which however had as their main object of worship (thehonzon) akami.[5] Unlike ajingū-ji, amiyadera had no priestly clan performingkami rituals in a separate shrine. Also, unlike those of ajingū-ji, monks at amiyadera could marry and pass their position to their children. There were also Buddhist monks with a subordinate function who were denied the right to marry.[5] A notable example of amiyadera wasIwashimizu Hachiman-gū-ji, now just aShinto shrine. Itshonzon waskamiHachiman, soul ofEmperor Ōjin.
The firstmiyadera was founded by a monk fromDaian-ji called Gyōkyō whoinvitedHachiman from Usa toIwashimizu Hachimangū.[1] Othermiyadera, such asGionsha, Kankei-ji andKitano Tenman-gū, were founded shortly afterwards.Miya-dera were particularly numerous among shrines dedicated to mountain religious sects like theKumano Sanzan complex and the Hakusan Shrine network.
The improperly-named institution traditionally called "Twenty-two Shrine System" was in fact a network of shrine-temples under Buddhist control.[5] Itsjingū-ji were, besides religious institutions, vehicles of the power of houses like theFujiwara, which wished to control religious matters; the Twenty-two Shrine System was meant to organize them and facilitate that control.[5]
The two former components of the shrine temple are now separate institutions. The link to the former temple part follows that to the former shrine part.
In 1868, the government ordered the complete separation of Buddhism andShinto. The measure had several goals, the main one being the weakening of Buddhism, which had collaborated with the Tokugawa shogunate. Although the government's Kami and Buddhas Separation Act didn't explicitly order the closing of temples, the destruction of Buddhist property and the defrocking of Buddhist priests and nuns, it was often interpreted as implying it. As a consequence, thehaibutsu kishaku (literally, 'Away with Buddha, destroy Shakyamuni') movement, born spontaneously as a reaction against Buddhism's collaboration with the Tokugawa shōguns, soon spread to the entire country with enormous consequences. An estimated 30,000 Buddhist structures were demolished between 1868 and 1874.[10] A substantial part of the population that had felt financially exploited by thedanka system (檀家制度,danka seido) participated in the movement.
Theshinbutsu bunri policy was also the direct cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, both shrines and temples of shrine-temple complexes had to give away the parts of their properties which were now illegal, thus damaging the integrity of their cultural heritage and decreasing their own historical and economic value.[11]Shasō were forced to become laymen. For example, the shrine today calledTsurugaoka Hachimangū inKamakura was until 1868 ajingu-ji called Tsurugaoka Hachimangū-ji. It was forced to demolish its entire Buddhistshichidō garan and sell it as wood.[11] Its giantNio, the two wooden wardens usually found at the sides of a temple's entrance, being objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, were sold toJufuku-ji, where they still are.[12]
Betto-ji is often used as a synonym of Jinguji.[13] However it specifically refers to a temple with aBettō or a Buddhist monk that oversees the temple. It is a more administrative idea than a Jingu-ji.
