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Jewish holidays, also known asJewish festivals orYamim Tovim (Hebrew:יָמִים טוֹבִים,romanized: yāmīm ṭōvīm,lit. 'Good Days',or singularHebrew:יוֹם טוֹבYom Tov, intransliteratedHebrew [English:/ˈjɔːmˈtɔːv,joʊmˈtoʊv/]),[1] are holidays observed byJews throughout theHebrew calendar.[Note 1] They include religious, cultural and national elements, derived from four sources:mitzvot ("biblical commandments"),rabbinic mandates, thehistory of Judaism, and theState of Israel.
Jewish holidays occur on the same dates every year in the Hebrew calendar, but the dates vary in theGregorian. This is because the Hebrew calendar is alunisolar calendar (based on the cycles of both the sun and moon), whereas the Gregorian is asolar calendar. Each holiday can only occur on certain days of the week, four for most, but five for holidays inTevet andShevat and six forHanukkah (seeDays of week on Hebrew calendar).
| Holiday | Date range |
|---|---|
| Rosh Hashanah | 5 Septo 5 Oct |
| Yom Kippur | 14 Septo 14 Oct |
| Sukkot (first of seven days) | 19 Septo 19 Oct |
| Shemini Atzeret | 26 Septo 26 Oct |
| Simchat Torah | 27 Septo 27 Oct |
| Hanukkah (first of eight days) | 28 Novto 27 Dec |
| Tu Bishvat | 15 Janto 13 Feb |
| Purim | 24 Febto 26 Mar |
| Shushan Purim | 25 Febto 27 Mar |
| Pesach (first of seven/eight days) | 26 Marto 25 Apr |
| Yom HaShoah | 8 Apr[3]to 7 May[4] |
| Yom Ha'atzmaut | 15 Apr[5]to 15 May[6] |
| Lag B'Omer | 28 Aprto 28 May |
| Yom Yerushalayim | 8 Mayto 7 Jun |
| Shavuot | 15 Mayto 14 Jun |
| Tzom Tammuz | 25 Junto 25 Jul |
| Tisha B'Av | 16 Julto 15 Aug |
| Tu B'Av | 22 Julto 21 Aug |
Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays.
Certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and their nature:
Shabbat (Hebrew:שבת) (Ashkenazi pron. fromYiddishshabbos), or Sabbath, is referred to by that name exclusively. Similarly,Rosh Chodesh (Hebrew:ראש חודש) is referred to by that name exclusively.
The most notable common feature of Shabbat and the biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from the39 Melakhot on these days.[Note 2]Melakha is most commonly translated as "work"; perhaps a better translation is "creative-constructive work". Strictly speaking, melakha is defined inhalakha (Jewish law) by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing theTabernacle while theJews wandered in the desert. As understood traditionally and inOrthodox Judaism:
In principle,Conservative Judaism understands the requirement to refrain from melakha in the same way as Orthodox Judaism. In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around melakha differently from Orthodox authorities.[14] Still, there are some Conservative/Masorti communities around the world where Shabbat and festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox observance.[Note 6]
However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselvesShabbat observant, even by Conservative standards.[15] At the same time, adherents ofReform Judaism andReconstructionist Judaism do not accept traditional halakha, and therefore restrictions on melakha, as binding at all.[Note 7] Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from melakha in practice only as they see fit.
Shabbat and holiday work restrictions are always put aside in cases ofpikuach nefesh, which are actions to save a human life. At the most fundamental level, if there is any possibility whatsoever that action must be taken to save a life, Shabbat restrictions are set aside immediately, and without reservation.[Note 8] Where the danger to life is present but less immediate, there is some preference to minimize violation of Shabbat work restrictions where possible. The laws in this area are complex.[16]
The Torah specifies a single date on the Jewish calendar for observance of holidays. Nevertheless, festivals of biblical origin other than Shabbat and Yom Kippur are observed for two days outside theland of Israel, and Rosh Hashanah is observed for two days even inside the land of Israel.
Dates for holidays on the Jewish calendar are expressed in the Torah as "day x of month y". Accordingly, the beginning ofmonth y needs to be determined before the proper date of the holiday onday x can be fixed. Months in the Jewish calendar arelunar, and originally were thought to have been proclaimed by the blowing of ashofar.[17] Later, theSanhedrin received testimony of witnesses saying they saw the new crescent moon.[Note 9] Then the Sanhedrin would inform Jewish communities away from its meeting place that it had proclaimed a new moon. The practice of observing a second festival day stemmed from delays in disseminating that information.[18]
Yom Kippur is not observed for two days anywhere because of the difficulty of maintaining a fast over two days.[Note 11]
Adherents ofReform Judaism andReconstructionist Judaism generally do not observe the second day of festivals,[22] although some do observe two days of Rosh Hashanah.[23]
Jewish law(halacha) accordsShabbat (Hebrew:שבת) the status of a holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each week. Jewish law defines a day as ending at either sundown or nightfall, when the next day then begins. Thus,
The fundamental rituals and observances of Shabbat include:
In many ways,halakha (Jewish law) seesShabbat as the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar.
Arbah Parshiyot
There are four Sabbaths, all during or in proximity to, the month of Adar, which have special significance because of additions which are made during the Torah reading on those days. These include:
Other Special Sabbaths
Other Sabbaths throughout the year are considered specially significant because of the time of year or the Torah portion and/or Haftorah being read.Shabbat Shuva is theShabbat precedingYom Kippur andShabbat Hagadol is theShabbat precedingPesach. On both of these it is customary for the rabbi of the synagogue to give an extended lecture on a topic related to the upcoming holiday.Shabbat Bereishit is the Shabbos immediately following Simchat Torah, in which the yearly Torah-reading cycle restarts anew.Shabbat Shira is the Shabbos on which the Shirat Hayam is read as part of Parshat Beshalach; it is customary to leave out breadcrumbs before this Shabbos for wild birds to eat.Shabbat Chazon is the Shabbos precedingTisha b'Av, during which the ominous haftorah of Chazon Yishayahu is read (this completes a cycle of three ominous haftoras leading up toTisha b'Av).Shabbat Nachamu is the Shabbos followingTisha b'Av during which the consolatory haftorah of Nachamu Ami is read (this begins a cycle of seven consolatory haftorahs following Tisha b'Av, known as theShiva d'Nechemta). TheShabbat preceding everyRosh Chodesh (exceptRosh Hashana) is known asShabbat Mevorochim; a prayer is added to the liturgy in anticipation of the coming month.
Rosh Chodesh (Hebrew:ראש חודש,romanized: roš ḥoḏeš,lit. 'head of the month') is a minor holiday or observance occurring on the first day of each month of the Jewish calendar, as well as the last day of the preceding month if it has thirty days.
Beyond the preceding, current observance is limited tochanges in liturgy.
Related observances:
The month ofElul that precedesRosh Hashanah is considered to be a propitious time forrepentance.[24] For this reason, additional penitential prayers calledSelichot are added to the daily prayers, except onShabbat.Sephardi Jews add these prayers each weekday duringElul.Ashkenazi Jews recite them from the last Sunday (or Saturday night) precedingRosh Hashanah that allows at least four days of recitations.
Throughout Elul, the shofar is blown at the end of the morning prayers (except for on Erev Rosh Hashana). Psalm 27 is recited at the end of morning prayers and at the end of afternoon or evening prayers (depending on the community's custom) from the first day of Elul through Hoshana Raba (the last day of Sukkot).
According tooral tradition,Rosh Hashanah (Hebrew:ראש השנה) (lit., "Head of the Year") is the Day of Memorial or Remembrance (Hebrew:יום הזכרון,Yom HaZikaron),[25] and the day of judgment (Hebrew:יום הדין,Yom HaDin).[26] God appears in the role of King, remembering and judging each person individually according to his/her deeds, and making a decree for each person for the following year.[27]
The holiday is characterized by one specificmitzvah: blowing theshofar.[28] According to the Torah, this is the first day of the seventh month of the calendar year,[28] and marks the beginning of a ten-day period leading up toYom Kippur. According to one of two Talmudic opinions, the creation of the world was completed onRosh Hashanah.[29]
Morning prayer services are lengthy onRosh Hashanah, and focus on the themes described above: majesty and judgment, remembrance, the birth of the world, and the blowing of theshofar. Most communities recite the briefTashlikh prayer, a symbolic casting off of the previous year's sins, during the afternoon ofRosh Hashanah.
Though the Bible specifiesRosh Hashanah as a one-day holiday,[28] a second day of rabbinic origin is also celebrated. Uniquely among biblical holidays, this additional rabbinic day is observed even within theLand of Israel. (SeeSecond day of biblical festivals, above.)
The Torah itself does not use any term like "New Year" in reference toRosh Hashanah. TheMishnah inRosh Hashanah[30] specifies four different "New Year's Days" for different purposes:
The first ten days ofTishrei (from the beginning ofRosh Hashana until the end ofYom Kippur) are known as the Ten Days of Repentance (עשרת ימי תשובה,Aseret Yemei Teshuva). During this time, in anticipation ofYom Kippur, it is "exceedingly appropriate"[32] for Jews to practicerepentance, an examination of one's deeds and repentance for sins one has committed against other people and God. This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one's deeds before God, fasting, self-reflection, and an increase of involvement with, or donations to,tzedakah "charity".
TheFast of Gedalia (Hebrew:צום גדליה) is a minor Jewish fast day. It commemorates the assassination of the governor ofYehud province,Gedaliah, which ended any level of Jewish rule following the destruction ofSolomon's Temple.According to the simple reading of the Bible,[33] the assassination occurred on Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), and if so, the fast is postponed to 3 Tishrei in respect for the holiday and it is further postponed to 4 Tishrei if 3 Tishrei is Shabbat. However, the Talmud states explicitly that it took place on 3 Tishrei.[34]
As on all minor fast days, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not normally observed. A Torah reading is included in both theShaharit andMinha prayers, and ahaftarah is also included atMincha. There are also some additions to the liturgy of both services.[35]
Yom Kippur (Hebrew:יום כיפור) is the holiest day of the year for Rabbinic Jews.[Note 13] Its central theme isatonement andreconciliation. This is accomplished through prayer and complete fasting—including abstinence from all food and drink (including water)—by all healthy adults.[Note 14] Bathing, wearing of perfume or cologne, wearing of leather shoes, and sexual relations are some of the other prohibitions onYom Kippur—all them designed to ensure one's attention is completely and absolutely focused on the quest for atonement with God.Yom Kippur is also unique among holidays as havingwork-related restrictions identical to those ofShabbat. The fast and other prohibitions commence on 10Tishrei at sunset—sunset being thebeginning of the day in Jewish tradition.
A traditional recitation inAramaic calledKol Nidre ("All Vows") is traditionally performed just before sunset. Although often regarded as the start of theYom Kippur evening service—to such a degree thatErev Yom Kippur ("Yom Kippur Evening") is often called "Kol Nidrei Night"—it is technically a separate tradition. This is especially so because, being recited before sunset, it is actually recited on 9Tishrei, which is the daybefore Yom Kippur; it is not recited onYom Kippur itself (on 10Tishrei, which beginsafter the sun sets).
ATallit (four-corneredprayer shawl) is donned for evening and afternoon prayers–the only day of the year in which this is done. In traditional Ashkenazi communities, men wear thekittel throughout the day's prayers. The prayers onYom Kippur evening are lengthier than on any other night of the year. Once services reconvene in the morning, the services (in all traditions) are the longest of the year. In some traditional synagogues prayers run continuously from morning until nightfall, or nearly so. Two highlights of the morning prayers in traditional synagogues are the recitation ofYizkor, the prayer of remembrance, and of liturgical poems(piyyutim) describing thetemple service ofYom Kippur.
Two other highlights happen late in the day. During theMinchah prayer, thehaftarah reading features the entireBook of Jonah. Finally, the day concludes withNe'ilah, a special service recited only on the day ofYom Kippur. Ne'ilah deals with the closing of the holiday, and contains a fervent final plea to God for forgiveness just before the conclusion of the fast.Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of theshofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. It is always observed as a one-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of theLand of Israel.
Yom Kippur is considered, along with 15th of Av, as the happiest days of the year (Talmud Bavli—Tractate Ta'anit).[36]
Day Before Yom Kippur
Some consider the Day Before Yom Kippur, i.e. 9 Tishri, a holiday its own right. The day before Yom Kippur is not Erev Yom Kippur - which is the actualevening of Yom Kippur on 10 Tishri, immediately after sunset and the recitation ofKol Nidre. It is a mitzva (commandment) to eat on the Day Before Yom Kippur, with the sages saying that one who eats throughout this day and then fasts onYom Kippur proper receives merit as though he had fasted twice. Slight liturgical changes are made to Shacharit, while more significant liturgical changes are made to Mincha. Many Ashkenazi Orthodox men traditionally take a mikvah on the day before Yom Kippur.
Sukkot (Hebrew:סוכות orHebrew:סֻכּוֹת,sukkōt) orSuccoth is a seven-dayfestival, also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of Tabernacles, or just Tabernacles. It is one of theThree Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Bible. Sukkot commemorates the years that the Jews spent in the desert on their way to the Promised Land, and celebrates the way in which God protected them under difficult desert conditions. The wordsukkot is the plural of theHebrew wordsukkah, meaning booth. Jews are commanded to "dwell" in booths during the holiday.[37] This generally means taking meals, but some sleep in thesukkah as well, particularly in Israel. There are specificrules for constructing asukkah.
Along with dwelling in asukkah, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is use of theFour Species:lulav (palm),hadass (myrtle),aravah (willow) andetrog (citron).[38] On each day of the holiday other than Shabbat, these are waved in association with the recitation ofHallel in the synagogue, then walked in a procession around the synagogue called theHoshanot.
Hoshana Rabbah
The seventh day of the Sukkot is calledHoshanah Rabbah, the "GreatHoshanah" (singular ofHoshanot and the source of the English wordhosanna). The climax of the day's prayers includes seven processions ofHoshanot around the synagogue. This tradition mimics practices from theTemple in Jerusalem. Many aspects of the day's customs also resemble those of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Hoshanah Rabbah is traditionally taken to be the day of the "delivery" of the final judgment of Yom Kippur, and offers alast opportunity for pleas of repentance before the holiday season closes.
The holiday of Shemini Atzeret (Hebrew:שמיני עצרת) immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of Sukkot. The Hebrew wordshemini means "eighth", and refers to its position on "the eighth day" of Sukkot, actually a seven-day holiday. This name reflects the fact that while in many respects Shemini Atzeret is a separate holiday in its own right, in certain respects its celebration islinked to that of Sukkot. Outside Israel, meals are still taken in the Sukkah on this day.
The main notable custom of this holiday is the celebration ofSimchat Torah (Hebrew:שמחת תורה), meaning "rejoicing with the Torah". This name originally referred to a special "ceremony": the lastweekly Torah portion is read fromDeuteronomy, completing the annual cycle, and is followed immediately by the reading of the first chapter ofGenesis, beginning the new annual cycle. Services are especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved.
This ceremony so dominates the holiday that in Israel, where the holiday is one day long, the whole holiday is often referred to asSimchat Torah. Outside Israel, the holiday is two days long; the nameShemini Atzeret is used for the first day, while the second is normally calledSimchat Torah.
The story of Hanukkah (Hebrew:חנוכה) is preserved in the books of theFirst andSecond Maccabees. These books are not part of theTanakh (Hebrew Bible), they areapocryphal books instead. The miracle of the one-day supply ofolive oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in theTalmud(Shabbat 21b), written about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.[39]
Hanukkah marks the defeat ofSeleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people ofIsrael from practicing Judaism.Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated theTemple in Jerusalem. The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights—one on the first night, two on the second, and so on—using a special candle holder called aHanukkiah, or aHanukkah menorah.
Religiously, Hanukkah is a minor holiday. Except on Shabbat, restrictions on work do not apply.[Note 15] Aside from the kindling of lights, formal religious observance is restricted tochanges in liturgy. Hanukkah celebration tends to be informal and based on custom rather than law. Three widely practiced customs include:
The Tenth of Tevet (Hebrew:עשרה בטבת,Asarah B'Tevet) is a minor fast day, marking the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem as outlined in2 Kings 25:1
This fast's commemoration also includesother events occurring on 8, 9 and 10 Tevet.
This fast is observed like other minor fasts (seeTzom Gedalia, above). This is the only minor fast that can fall on a Friday under the current fixedJewish calendar.
Tu Bishvat (ט"ו בשבט) (lit., "fifteenth of Shevat", asט״ו is the number "15" in Hebrew letters), is the new year for trees. It is also known asחג האילנות (Ḥag ha-Ilanot, Festival of Trees), orראש השנה לאילנות (Rosh ha-Shanah la-Ilanot, New Year for Trees). According to theMishnah, it marks the day from which fruittithes are counted each year. Starting on this date, the biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit (orlah) and the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit(neta revai) to theTemple in Jerusalem were counted.[40]
During the 17th century, RabbiYitzchak Luria ofSafed and his disciples created a short seder, calledHemdat ha‑Yamim, reminiscent of the seder that Jews observe onPassover, that explores the holiday'sKabbalistic themes.[41] ThisTu Bishvat seder has witnessed a revival in recent years. More generally, Tu Bishvat is celebrated in modern times by eating various fruits and nuts associated with theLand of Israel.
Traditionally, trees are planted on this day.[42] Many children collect funds leading up to this day to plant trees in Israel. Trees are usually planted locally as well.
Purim Katan (פורים קטן) (lit., "small Purim") is observed on the 14th and 15th of First Adar in leap years. These days are marked by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.
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Ta'anit Esther (תענית אסתר), or "Fast of Esther", is named in honor of the fast ofEsther and her court as Esther prepared to approach the king unbidden to invite him andHaman to a banquet.[43] It commemorates that fast, as well as one alluded to later in theBook of Esther,[44] undertaken as the Jews prepared to battle their enemies.
This fast is observed like other minor fasts (seeTzom Gedalia, above). While normally observed on 13 Adar, the eve of Purim, this fast is advanced to Thursday, 11 Adar, when 13 Adar falls on Shabbat.
Purim (פורים) commemorates the events that took place in theBook of Esther. The principal celebrations or commemorations include:[45]
Several customs have evolved from these principal commemorations. One widespread custom to act out the story of Purim. ThePurim spiel, or Purim play, has its origins in this, although thePurim spiel is not limited to that subject.[47] Wearing of costumes and masks is also very common. These may be an outgrowth of Purim plays, but there are several theories as to the origin of the custom, most related in some way to the "hidden" nature of the miracles of Purim.[Note 19]
Purim carnivals of various types have also become customary. In Israel there are festive parades, known asAd-D'lo-Yada,[48] in the town's main street. The largest and most renowned is inHolon.[49]
Most Jews celebrate Purim on 14 Adar, the day of celebration after the Jews defeated their enemies. Because Jews in the capital city ofShushan fought with their enemies an extra day, Purim is celebrated a day later there, on the day known asשושן פורים,Shushan Purim. This observance was expanded to "walled cities",[45] which are defined as cities "walled since the time ofJoshua".[50] In practice, there are no Jews living in Shushan (Shush, Iran), and Shushan Purim is observed fully only inJerusalem. Cities likeSafed andTiberias also partially observe Shushan Purim. Elsewhere, Shushan Purim is marked only by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.
Purim Meshulash
If 15 Adar falls out on Shabbos, Jews in Jerusalem celebrate a unique 3-day Purim known as Purim Meshulash. The reading of the Megillah and the giving ofMatanot L'evyonim occur on Friday; the Torah Reading for Purim is read on Shabbos andAl-Hanisim (the liturgical addition for Purim) is said; and the Purim Meal and the giving ofMishloach Manot occur on Sunday.
As a rule, the month of Nisan is considered to be one of extra joy. Traditionally, throughout the entire month,Tahanun is omitted from the prayer service, many public mourning practices (such as delivering aeulogy at a funeral) are eliminated, and voluntaryfasting is prohibited.[51] However, practices sometimes vary.[52]
The day before Passover (Erev Pesach, lit., "Passover eve") is significant for three reasons:
When Passover starts on Sunday, and the eve of Passover is therefore Shabbat, the above schedule is altered. SeeEve of Passover on Shabbat for details.
Passover (פּסח)(Pesach), also known liturgically as חג המצות("Ḥag haMatzot", the "Festival of Unleavened Bread"), is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (shalosh regalim) mentioned in the Torah. Passover commemoratesthe Exodus, the liberation of the Israelite slaves from Egypt.[55][56] Nochametz (leavened food) is eaten, or even owned, during the week of Passover, in commemoration of the biblical narrative in which the Israelites left Egypt so quickly that their bread did not have enough time to rise.[57] Observant Jews go to great lengths to remove allchametz from their homes and offices in the run-up to Passover.[58]
Along with the avoidance ofchametz, the principal ritual unique to this holiday is theseder. Theseder, meaning "order", is an ordered ritual meal eaten on the first night of Passover, and outside Israel also on thesecond night. This meal is known for its distinctive ritual foods—matzo (unleavened bread),maror (bitter herbs), and four cups ofwine—as well as its prayer text/handbook/study guide, theHaggadah. Participation in a Passover seder is one of the most widely observed Jewish rituals, even among less affiliated or less observant Jews.[59]
Passover lasts seven days in Israel,[60] and eight days outside Israel. The holiday of the last day of Passover (outside Israel, lasttwo days) commemorates theSplitting of the Red Sea; according to tradition this occurred on theseventh day of Passover.[61]
Pesach Sheni (פסח שני) ("Second Passover") is a day prescribed in the Torah[62] to allow those who did not bring the Paschal Lamb offering(Korban Pesach) a second chance to do so. Eligibility was limited to those who were distant from Jerusalem on Passover, or those who were ritually impure and ineligible to participate in a sacrificial offering. Today, some have the custom to eat matzo on Pesach Sheni, and some make a small change to the liturgy.
Sefirah (lit. "Counting"; more fully,Sefirat HaOmer, "Counting of the Omer") (ספירת העומר), is the 49-day period between the biblical pilgrimage festivals of Passover and Shavuot. The Torah states[63] that this period is to be counted, both in days and in weeks. The first day of this period[Note 23] is the day of the firstgrain offering of the new year's crop, anomer ofbarley. The day following the 49th day of the period is the festival of Shavuot; the Torah specifies a grain offering ofwheat on that day.[63]
Symbolically, this period has come to represent the spiritual development of the Israelites from slaves in thepolytheistic society ofAncient Egypt to free,monotheistic people worthy of therevelation of the Torah, traditionally said to have occurred onShavuot. Spiritual development remains a key rabbinic teaching of this period.[64]
Sefirah has long been observed as a period of semi-mourning. The customary explanation[65] cites a plague that killed 24,000 students ofRabbi Akiva (BTYevamot 62b).[Note 24] In broad terms, the mourning practices observed include limiting actual celebrations (such as weddings), not listening to music, not wearing new clothing, and not shaving or taking a haircut.[65] There is a wide variety of practice as to the specifics of this observance. SeeCounting of the Omer (Semi-mourning).
Lag Ba'Omer (לַ״ג בָּעוֹמֶר) is the 33rd day in the Omer count (לַ״ג is the number 33 in Hebrew). By Ashkenazi practice, the semi-mourning observed during the period of Sefirah (see above) is liftedon Lag Ba'Omer, while Sefardi practice is to lift itat the end of Lag Ba'Omer.[65][66] Minor liturgical changes are made on Lag Ba'omer; because mourning practices are suspended, weddings are often conducted on this day.
Lag Ba'Omer is identified as theYom Hillula (yahrzeit) ofRabbi Shimon bar Yochai, one of the leadingTannaim (teachers quoted in the Mishna) and ascribed author of the core text ofKabbalah, theZohar. Customary celebrations include bonfires,picnics, and bow and arrow play by children.[67] Boys sometimes receive their first haircuts on Lag Ba'Omer,[68] while Hasidic rebbes holdtishes in honor of the day.
In Israel, Lag Ba'Omer is associated with theBar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire. In Zionist thought, the plague that decimated Rabbi Akiva's 24,000 disciples is explained as a veiled reference to the revolt; the 33rd day representing the end of the plague is explained as the day of Bar Kokhba's victory. The traditional bonfires and bow-and-arrow play were thus reinterpreted as celebrations of military victory.[67] In this vein, the order originally creating theIsrael Defense Forces was issued on Lag Ba'Omer 1948, 13 days after Israel declared independence.[69]
Shavuot (שבועות), the Feast of Weeks, is one of the three pilgrimage festivals (Shalosh regalim) ordained in the Torah. Different from other biblical holidays, the date for Shavuot is not explicitly fixed in the Torah. Instead, it is observed on the day following the 49th and final day in thecounting of the Omer.[63] In the current era of the fixedJewish calendar, this puts the date of Shavuot as 6 Sivan. In Israel and in Reform Judaism, it is a one-day holiday; elsewhere, it is a two-day holiday extending through 7 Sivan.[Note 23]
According to Rabbinic tradition, codified in the Talmud atShabbat 87b, theTen Commandments were given on this day. In the era of the Temple, there were certain specificofferings mandated for Shavuot, and Shavuot was the first day for bringing ofBikkurim to the Temple. Other than those, there are no explicitmitzvot unique to Shavuot given in the Torah (parallel to matzo on Passover or Sukkah on Sukkot).
Nevertheless, there are a number of widespread customs observed on Shavuot. During this holiday theTorah portion containing the Ten Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblicalBook of Ruth is read as well. It is traditional to eat dairy meals during Shavuot. In observant circles,all night Torah study is common on the first night of Shavuot, while in Reform Judaism, Shavuot is the customary date forConfirmation ceremonies.
The three-week period starting on 17 Tammuz and concluding after Tisha B'Av has traditionally been observed as a period of mourning for the destruction ofJerusalem and theHoly Temple there.
The Seventeenth of Tamuz (שבעה עשר בתמוז,Shiva Asar B'Tamuz) traditionally marks the first breach in the walls of the Jerusalem during the Roman conquest in 70 CE, at the end of theSecond Temple period.[Note 25] According to tradition, this day has had negative connotations since Moses broke the first set of tablets on this day.[70] The Mishnah cites five negative events that happened on 17 Tammuz.[71]
This fast is observed like other minor fasts (seeTzom Gedalia, above). When this fast falls out on Shabbat, its observance is postponed until Sunday.
The period between the fasts of 17 Tammuz and 9 Av, known as the "Three Weeks" (Hebrew: בין המצרים, "between the straits"[72]), features a steadily increasing level of mourning practices as Tisha B'Av approaches. Ashkenazi Jews refrain from conducting weddings and other joyful events throughout the period unless the date is established by Jewish law (as for abris orpidyon haben). They do not cut their hair during this period.[73] Starting on the first of Av and throughout the nine days between the 1st and 9th days of Av, Ashkenazim traditionally refrain from eatingmeat and drinkingwine, except on Shabbat or at aSeudat Mitzvah (aMitzvah meal, such as for a bris orsiyum).[73] They also refrain from bathing for pleasure.[73] Sefardic practice varies some from this; the less severe restrictions usually begin on 1 Av, while the more severe restrictions apply during the week of Tisha B'Av itself.[73]
Subject to the variations described above,Orthodox Judaism continues to maintain the traditional prohibitions. InConservative Judaism, theRabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued severalresponsa (legal rulings) which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in this timeframe are deeply held traditions, but should not be construed as binding law. Thus, Conservative Jewish practice would allow weddings during this time, except on the 17th of Tammuz and 9th of Av themselves.[Note 26] Rabbis withinReform Judaism andReconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha (Jewish law) is no longer binding and follow their individual consciences on such matters. Nevertheless, the rabbinical manual of the Reform movement encourages Reform rabbis not to conduct weddings on Tisha B'Av itself "out of historical consciousness and respect" for the Jewish community.[74]
Tisha B'Av (תשעה באב) is a major fast day and day of mourning. A Midrashic tradition states that the spies' negative report concerning the Land of Israel was delivered on Tisha B'Av. Consequently, the day became auspicious for negative events in Jewish history. Most notably, both theFirst Temple, originally built by KingSolomon, and theSecond Temple of Roman times were destroyed on Tisha B'Av.[71] Other calamities throughout Jewish history are said to have taken place on Tisha B'Av, including KingEdward I's edict compelling the Jews to leave England (1290) and theJewish expulsion from Spain in 1492.
Tisha B'Av is a major fast. It is a 25-hour fast, running from sundown to nightfall. As on Yom Kippur, not only are eating and drinking prohibited, but also bathing, anointing, marital relations and the wearing of leather shoes. Work is not prohibited, as on biblical holidays, but is discouraged. In the evening, theBook of Lamentations is read in the synagogue, while in the morning lengthykinot, poems of elegy, are recited. From evening until noon mourning rituals resembling those ofshiva are observed, including sitting on low stools or the floor; after noon those restrictions are somewhat lightened, in keeping with the tradition that Messiah will be born on Tisha B'Av.[75]
While the fast ends at nightfall of 9–10 Av, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days continue through noon on 10 Av because the Second Temple continued to burn through most of that day. When 9 Av falls on Shabbat, when fasting is prohibited, the fast is postponed until 10 Av. In that case, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days end with the fast, except for the prohibition against eating meat and drinking wine, which extend until the morning of 10 Av.[75]
Tu B'av (ט״ו באב), lit. "15th of Av", is a day mentioned in the Talmud alongside Yom Kippur as "happiest of the year".[36] It was a day celebrating the bringing of wood used for the Temple Service, as well as a day when marriages were arranged. Today, it is marked by a small change in liturgy. In modern Israel, the day has become somewhat of an analog toValentine's Day.
Several other fast days of ancient or medieval origin continue to be observed to some degree in modern times. Such continued observance is usually by Orthodox Jews only, and is not universal today even among Orthodox Jews.[Note 27]
As a general rule, the biblical Jewish holidays (Sabbath, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot and Purim) are observed as public holidays in Israel. Chanukah is a school holiday, but businesses remain open. On Tisha B'Av, restaurants and places of entertainment are closed. Other Jewish holidays listed above are observed in varying ways and to varying degrees.
Between the creation of theState of Israel in 1948 and the aftermath of theSix-Day War, theKnesset, generally in consultation with theChief Rabbinate of Israel, established four national holidays or days of remembrance:
The status of these days asreligious events is not uniform within the Jewish world. Non-Orthodox,Religious Zionist andModern OrthodoxJewish religious movements[Note 28] accept these days asreligious as well asnational in nature.
As a rule, these four days are not accepted as religious observances by mostHaredi Jews, includingHasidim. Someḥaredim are opposed to the existence of the State of Israel altogether on religious grounds; others simply feel that there are not sufficient grounds under Jewish law to justify the establishment of new religious holidays. For details, seeHaredim and Zionism.
Observance of these days inJewish communities outside Israel is typically more muted than their observance in Israel. Events held in government and public venues within Israel are often held in Jewish communal settings (synagogues and community centers) abroad.
More recently, the Knesset established two additional holidays:
Finally, the Israeli government also recognizes severalethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.
Yom HaShoah (lit. "Holocaust Day") is a day of remembrance for victims of theHolocaust. Its full name isYom Hazikaron LaShoah v'LiGevurah (lit. "Holocaust and Heroism Remembrance Day") (יום הזכרון לשואה ולגבורה), and reflects a desire to recognize martyrs who died in activeresistance to theNazis alongside those who died as passive victims. Its date, 27 Nisan, was chosen because it commemorates theWarsaw Ghetto uprising, the best known of the armed Jewish uprisings.[Note 29][Note 30]
Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.[83] Publiccommemoration of Yom HaShoah usually includes religious elements such as the recitation ofPsalms, memorial prayers, andkaddish, and the lighting ofmemorial candles.In Israel, the most notable observances are the State memorial ceremony atYad Vashem and the sirens marking off a two-minute silence at 10:00 am. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jews generally participate in such public observances along with secular Jews and Jews who adhere to more liberal religious movements.Outside Israel, Jewish communities observe Yom HaShoah in addition to or instead of their countries'Holocaust Memorial Days.[83] Probably the most notable commemoration is theMarch of the Living, held at the site ofAuschwitz-Birkenau, attended by Jews from all parts of the world.
Outside Orthodoxy, a liturgy for Yom HaShoah is beginning to develop. The Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist prayer books all includeliturgical elements for Yom HaShoah, to be added to the regular weekday prayers. Conservative Judaism has written a scroll, calledMegillat HaShoah, intended to become a definitive liturgical reading for Yom HaShoah.[84][85] The Orthodox world–even the segment that participates publicly in Yom HaShoah–has been reluctant to write a liturgy for the day, preferring to composeKinnot (prayers of lamentation) for recitation onTisha B'Av.[84][Note 31]
In order to ensure that public Yom HaShoah ceremonies in Israel do not violate Shabbat prohibitions, the date for Yom HaShoah varies[Note 32] as follows:
Yom Hazikaron (lit. "Memorial Day") is a day of remembrance of the fallen of Israel's wars. During the first years of Israel's independence, this remembrance was observed onYom Ha'atzmaut (Independence Day) itself. However, by 1951, the memorial observance was separated from the festive celebration of Independence Day and moved to its current date, the day before Yom Ha'atzmaut.[86][Note 33] Since 2000, the scope of the memorial has expanded to include civilians slain by acts of hostileterrorism. Its full name is nowיום הזכרון לחללי מערכות ישראל ולנפגעי פעולות האיבה ("Day of Remembrance for the Fallen of the Battles of Israel and the Victims of Terror").[87]
Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.[88] Many schools, businesses and other institutions conduct memorial services on this day, and it is customary to visit the graves of fallen soldiers and to recite memorial prayers there. The principal public observances are the evening opening ceremony at theWestern Wall and the morning services of remembrance at military cemeteries throughout the country, each opened by the sounding of sirens. The public observances conclude with the service at the military cemetery onMount Herzl that serves as the transition to Yom Ha'atzmaut.
Outside Israel, Yom HaZikaron observances are often folded into Yom Ha'atzmaut celebrations. Within Israel, Yom Hazikaron is always the day before Yom Ha'atzmaut, but that date moves to prevent violation of Sabbath prohibitions during the ceremonies of either day. See following section for details.
Yom Ha'atzmaut (יום העצמאות) is Israel'sIndependence Day. Observance of this day by Jews inside and outside Israel is widespread,[89] and varies in tone from secular (military parades and barbecues) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies).
Although Israel's independence was declared on a Friday, the Chief Rabbinate has long been mindful of the possibility of Yom Ha'atzmaut (and Yom Hazikaron) observances leading to violation of Sabbath prohibitions. To prevent such violations, the dates of Yom Hazikaron and Yom Ha'atzmaut vary[Note 32] as follows:
Nearly all non-ḥaredi Jewish religious communities have incorporated changes or enhancements to the liturgy in honor of Yom Ha'atzmaut and suspend the mourning practices ofthe period of Sefirat Ha'Omer. (SeeYom Ha'atzmaut—Religious Customs for details.) Within the Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox communities, these changes are not without controversy, and customs continue to evolve.[90]
Ḥaredi religious observance of Yom Ha'atzmaut varies widely. A fewḥaredim (especiallySefardic Ḥaredim) celebrate the day in a reasonably similar way to the way non-ḥaredim do.[91] Mostḥaredim simply treat the day indifferently;i.e., as a regular day.[90] And finally others (notablySatmar Ḥasidim andNeturei Karta) mourn on the day because of their opposition to the enterprise of the State of Israel.[92]
Jerusalem Day (יום ירושלים) marks the 1967reunification of Jerusalem under Israeli control during theSix-Day War. This marked the first time in 19 years that theTemple Mount was accessible to Jews, and the first time since the destruction of theSecond Temple 1897 years earlier that the Temple Mount was under Jewish political control.
As with Yom Ha'atzmaut, celebrations of Yom Yerushalayim range from completely secular (including hikes to Jerusalem and a large parade through downtown Jerusalem) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies). Although Haredim do not participate in the liturgical changes, they are somewhat more likely to celebrate Yom Yerushalayim than the other modern Israeli holidays because of the importance of the liberation of theWestern Wall and theOld City of Jerusalem.[93]
Outside Israel, observance of Yom Yerushalayim is widespread, especially in Orthodox circles. It has not gained as widespread acceptance as Yom Ha'atzmaut, especially among more politically liberal Jews, because of the continuing conflicts over the future of the city.[94]
Yom Yerushalayim has not traditionally moved to avoid Shabbat desecration, although in 2012 the Chief Rabbinate began some efforts in that direction.[95]
Aliyah Day (יום העלייה) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of Nisan.[96] The day was established to acknowledgeAliyah, immigration to the Jewish state, as a core value of the State of Israel, and honor the ongoing contributions of Olim (immigrants) to Israeli society.[97]
Immigration to Israel is a recognized religious value of Judaism, sometimes referred to as theGathering of Israel.[98] The date chosen for Yom HaAliyah, 10 Nisan, has religious significance: it is the day on which Joshua and the Israelites crossed the Jordan River atGilgal into the Promised Land. It was thus the first documented "mass Aliyah".[99] The alternative date observed in the school system, 7Heshvan, falls during the week of the Torah portion in which God instructsAbraham to leave his home and his family and go up to the Land of Israel.[100]
At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.[citation needed]
The Knesset established this observance in 2014. The purpose of this observance is to recognize the collective trauma ofMizrahi Jews during the period around the establishment of the State of Israel. Many Mizrachi Jews felt that their own suffering was being ignored, both in comparison to the suffering ofEuropean Jewry during theHolocaust and in comparison to the PalestinianNakba. The Gregorian-calendar date chosen is the day after theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted, as that date marked the beginning of concentrated pressure and hostility against the community.[101]
At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.
The Israeli government established this national remembrance day in March 2024. It is designed to be a national remembrance day for those who died in theOctober 7 attacks and theGaza war as a whole.[102]
The Israeli government officially recognizes three traditional holidays of ethnic Jewish communities in Israel. These days are also observed by their respective communities outside Israel.
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)) Based on the same source text, Karaite practice identifies this as the first Sunday on or after 16 Nisan, and therefore places Shavuot on the eighth Sunday on or after 16 Nisan—both as reckoned on the Karaite calendar. (SeeKaraite Judaism: Sephirath Ha‘Omer and Shavu‘oth.){{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)And in this month you are free; it is said: "This will be the beginning of the months for you"
— Song of SongsMidrash Rabbah 2,19–25
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906)."Fasting and Fast Days".The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906)."Yom Kippur Katan".The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.Jewish life | ||
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