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Jewish art, or theart(s) of the Jewish people, encompasses a diverse range of creative endeavors and time periods, spanning fromantiquity to theModern period, culminating in the artistic movements of theHaskalah, and thevisual arts of the Yishuv and modern Israel, as well as – throughout all periods of Jewish history – the diverse work of theDiaspora. Jewish art encompasses the visualplastic arts,sculpture,painting, and more, all influenced byJewish culture,history, andreligious beliefs.
Jewish artistic expression traces back to the art of the ancientIsraelites in theLand of Israel, where it originated and evolved during theSecond Temple Period, influenced by various empires. This artistic tradition underwent further development during theMishnaic andTalmudic eras, reflecting cultural and religious shifts within Jewish communities. With the dispersion of Jews across the globe, known as theJewish diaspora, artistic production persisted throughout the millennia, adapting to diverse cultural landscapes while retaining distinct Jewish themes and motifs.
Until theemancipation, Jewish art was mostly centered around religious practices and rituals. Following the emancipation in the early modern period, Jewish artists, notably in Europe began to explore different themes, with different levels of connection to religious art. Notably,Jews in France, some of whom from fleeing from Eastern Europe, produced at times modernist art of completely secular nature. Later in the first half of the 20th century, a group composed mainly of theseEastern European Jews fleeing from persecution were known as theSchool of Paris.
From the mid to late 20th century, followingThe Holocaust and the immigration of Jews tomodern Israel, Israel re-emerged as a center of Jewish art while Europe declined in its importance as a center of Jewish culture.
Prior to theFirst Temple Period and throughout its duration, literary sources point to the existence of craftsmanship which could be considered both art in its restrictive sense and nativelyJewish.[1][2][3] This was largely related to matters of ritual, such as the decoration of theTabernacle, and theTemple that replaced it.[1] Within this context, a number offigurative characters were present, such as thecherubs of theArk of the Covenant and of theSolomonicHoly of Holies, and the twelvebronzeoxen which formed the base of theMolten Sea. Artifacts bearing plastic depictions, such as the plaques unearthed inKing Ahab's "House of Ivory" inSamaria and Israelite seals found in many locations in the land of Israel, appear to be influenced byPhoenician,Assyrian orEgyptian styles.[4]
In theSecond Temple period, Jewish art was heavily influenced by the Biblical injunction against graven images, leading to a focus on geometric, floral, and architectural motifs rather than figurative or symbolic representations. This artistic restraint was a response to the Hellenistic cultural pressures that threatened Jewish religious practices, notably the imposition of idolatry. Symbolic elements like the menorah and theshewbread table were sparingly used, primarily reflecting their significance in priestly duties.[5][6]
However, therise of Christianity and its establishment as the dominant religion of theRoman Empire marked a turning point in Jewish artistic expression. This period, known as Late Antiquity, witnessed Jewish communities gradually incorporating symbolic motifs into their synagogal and funerary art. The expansion of these symbols beyond themenorah and the shewbread table to include other ritual objects and emblems signified a broader expression of Jewish identity. This shift in cultural representation aimed to affirm Jewish faith and community following the rise of Christian dominance in theMediterranean region, making symbols like the menorah emblematic of national identity as well as religious faith.[5][6]
The menorah, initially a representation of priestly duties in theSecond Temple, evolved into a central symbol of Jewish identity, especially after the Temple's destruction. Its depiction in Jewish art, ranging from synagogue mosaics to catacombs, signified not only the religious importance of the Temple but also served as a distinguishing marker of Jewish places of worship and burial. Scholars debate the menorah's symbolism, with interpretations ranging from its seven branches representing divine light, the seven planets, or the days of the week, reflecting its integral role in both daily rituals and as a symbol of Judaism itself.[5][6]
The shewbread table, alongside other ritual objects such as thelulav,etrog, shofar, and flask, also played significant roles in Jewish art, marking the continuation of Temple traditions in diaspora communities. These objects, alongside depictions of the Temple, the Ark of the Scrolls, and theArk of the Covenant, are part of an array of symbols used by Jewish communities to express and maintain their religious and cultural identity.[7][8][9]
During the medieval period (roughly the 5th to 15th centuries), Jewish communities continued to produce works of Jewish art, with most of the art centered around religious life, notably synagogues and religious texts.[10] Jewish scholars and texts, including works by luminaries likeRashi andMaimonides, often featured illustrations, some of which were crafted by artists who also served Christian clients, with notable connections between Jewish and Christian artists. The Florentine artistMariano del Buono and the Master of theBarbo Missal, known for their work for Christian patrons, also created significant Jewish pieces.[10][11] Ritual objects such as Hanukkah lamps and kiddush cups, while prescribed by Jewish law, evolved in form and decoration over time, often mirroring the luxury items and aesthetic preferences of their Christian counterparts. This adaptability and integration are further evidenced in medieval synagogue architecture, which frequently borrowed elements from contemporary Christian buildings, as seen in the synagogues in Central Europe such as those inRegensburg andPrague, which incorporate Gothic styles and motifs.[10]
From the time of theMuslim Conquests to theRenaissance in Europe, most Jews lived in the Muslim world. Jewish art made there reflected the characteristics ofIslamic art. A 2024 exhibition atThe Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life explored how the two cultures "shared graphic forms and visual landscapes, attitudes towards sacred texts and human bodies, and networks of trade and knowledge exchange."[12] A 2025 exhibition at theGrolier Club of material from theJewish Theological Seminary displayed manuscript pages from Jewish communities in Yemen, North Africa, Iran, and Iraq. Jewish art from the Islamic world, like Islamic art, featured "elaborate patterns, floral motifs and very few depictions of people."[13]
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Artifacts from this era reflected the cultural exchanges between Jews and Christians, often as a result of intense theological dialogue and mutual curiosity between the two faiths. Christian scholars' efforts to learnHebrew, challenge Jewish beliefs, or the portrayal of Jews and Jewish practices in Christian art with remarkable accuracy, suggest according to the Met, an interaction that was both intellectual and artistic. Objects such as the bronzemenorah in theCathedral of Essen and the head ofKing David fromNotre-Dame de Paris are pointed to as examples of such artworks.[10]
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Jewish manuscripts during the medieval period, notably inmedieval Spain were illuminated with visual imagery. TheSarajevo Passover Haggadah, originating in Northern Spain in the 14th century is a notable example.[16] TheGolden Haggadah, originating inCatalonia exhibit Gothic and Italianate influences.[17]
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Jewish art continued to be projected through sacred spaces and religious art. The exteriors of synagogues, particularly notable in thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, were often unassuming, with plain facades that concealed their richly decorated interiors. This contrast underscored a Jewish philosophical notion wherein the sacred resides hidden within the mundane, a concept mirrored in the architectural dichotomy between the exterior and interior of these religious buildings. The internal beauty of these synagogues, adorned with detailed paintings and elaborate designs, was in stark contrast to their modest exteriors, a dichotomy driven by a desire to avoid provoking Christian antagonism and adhering to restrictions imposed by Christian authorities, such as limitations on the height of Jewish religious buildings.[18]
Such restrictions led to innovative architectural solutions, including lowering the floors of synagogues to create a sense of increased interior height, a practice echoing the biblical verse "I call to you from the depths, O Lord" (Ps. 130:1). This approach not only adhered to the legal constraints but also enriched the spiritual ambiance of the synagogue space.[18]
In Italy, synagogues were often discreetly integrated into the upper floors of tenements within ghettos, their exteriors giving no hint of the opulent Baroque interiors within. This concealment extended beyond the synagogues' architecture to their urban placement, with some synagogues in Central Europe being hidden behind courtyards or other buildings, as seen inDüsseldorf andVienna. This strategic concealment served both to comply with external regulations and to safeguard the sanctity and security of the Jewish worship space.[18]
TheNapoleonic code written underNapoleon Bonaparte'sFrench Empire liberated the Jews who had been restricted to ghettos and marginalized economically and politically.[19][20] The Napoleonic Code, also initiated Jewish emancipation across Europe, granting religious freedom to Jews, Protestants, and Freemasons. This act of liberation extended to territories conquered by the First French Empire, where Napoleon abolished laws that confined Jews to ghettos and restricted their rights. By 1808, he further integrated French Judaism into the state, establishing the national Israelite Consistory alongside recognized Christian cults, thereby formally acknowledging Jewish communities within French society for the first time.[19][20]
As Jews were emancipated and gained civil rights, they began to integrate into mainstream society and work in occupations limited to them beforehand, Jews could become mainstream artists and were increasingly influenced by the prevailing cultural and artistic movements of their time.[21] These artists also began to create art beyond religious texts and spaces and engage in secular arts. This period also saw an increase in Jewish patronage of the arts.[21]
Early critics likeMajer Bałaban viewed Jewish art broadly, including any object that exhibited “features of Jewish creativity,” whileAbram Efros contended that Jewish artists should be recognized within the national contexts of their residence, arguing, “Jewish artists belong to the art of the country where they live and work”. Following the emancipation, figures such asMaurycy Gottlieb blurred traditional boundaries, integrating Jewish themes into a broaderChristian iconographic tradition, laying foundational elements for Jewish genre painting. The late 19th and early 20th centuries with the rise ofJewish nationalism added an ideological dimension to Jewish art, with Jewish genre painting used by some as medium for expressingZionist revival and the Jewish experience of exile.[22] Religious art and architecture manifested also in wooden synagogues in Eastern Europe which would eventually be destroyed by the Nazis in the Second World war.[23]
The works of artists such asSzmul Hirszenberg andIzidor Kaufmann showcased an interweaving of Jewish narratives with a universal moral vocabulary, drawing mainly on Christian allegories to depict Jewish suffering and resilience. Their art, while deeply rooted in Jewish experiences, mirrored the allegorical and dramatic modes prevalent inChristian painting, responding to the artistic and ideologies of the time. An example beingHirszenberg's works, such as "Golus" and "Czarny Sztandar" (The Black Banner, 1907,Jewish Museum, New York), used Christian allegories to communicate broader themes of exile, suffering, and redemption, embodying the tension between death and resurrection characteristic of Christian imagery.[24][22]
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TheParis School orÉcole de Paris, ("the School of Paris" inFrench) is a term coined in 1925 by art criticAndré Warnod, said to represent a diverse group of artists, many of Jewish origin from Eastern Europe, who settled inMontparnasse, Paris. Many of these Jewish artists arrived in Paris seeking artistic education and having fled from persecution, particularly in Eastern Europe. The École de Paris included notable figures such asMarc Chagall,Jules Pascin,Chaïm Soutine,Yitzhak Frenkel Frenel,Amedeo Modigliani, andAbraham Mintchine.[25][26][27] Their work often depicted Jewish themes and expressed deep emotional intensity, reflecting their experiences of discrimination, pogroms, and the upheavals of theRussian Revolution. The art of these artists, especially those of Eastern European origin is said to have reflected inexpressionist works the plight and suffering of theJewish people.[28][29] Despite facing xenophobia and criticism from some quarters, these artists played a central role in the vibrant artistic community of Paris, frequenting cafes, communicated inYiddish and contributed significantly to its status as the capital of the art world.[30] The School of Paris ebbed away following theNazi occupation of France and theHolocaust, during which several Jewish artists were murdered or died of disease. Several of the artists, such asMarc Chagall, dispersed to Israel and theUnited States.[30]
InIsrael, the influence of theÉcole de Paris persisted from the 1920s through the 1940s, withFrench art and especially French Jewish artists continuing to shape the Israeli art scene for decades. The return of École de Paris artistYitzhak Frenkel Frenel to Pre-Independence Israel in 1925 and the establishment of theHistadrut Art Studio marked the beginning of this influence. His students, upon returning from Paris, further amplified the French artistic influence in Pre-Independence Israel.[31] This period saw artists inTel Aviv andSafed creating works that portrayed humanity and emotion, often with a dramatic and tragic quality reflective of Jewish experiences.Safed, one of the holy cities of Judaism, in particular, became a center for artists influenced by the École de Paris in the mid to late 20th century. Its mystical and romantic setting attracted artists likeMoshe Castel and Yitzhak Frenkel Frenel, who sought to capture the city's spiritual essence and dynamic landscapes.[31][32]
In the early 20th century theBezalel School of Arts and Crafts in 1906 was founded byBoris Schatz, blending EuropeanArt Nouveau with local artistic traditions. This period also saw the emergence of modern art movements and a shift towards a more subjective artistic expression, challenging the traditional confines of Bezalel's artistic doctrine. With the establishment of studios such as theHistadrut art studio[33] and exhibitions oriented toward modern art following the introduction of the influence of theÉcole de Paris,Tel Aviv emerging as a cultural hub, in time replacingJerusalem as the country's prominent art centre.[31][34]
During the early 20th century, artists began to settle in Safed, leading to the establishment of theArtist's Quarter of Tzfat which catalyzed what is at times referred to as a "golden age of art" in the city, spanning the 1950s through the 1970s. This era also saw the rise of significant art movements such as the Canaanite andNew Horizons movements, further diversified the Israeli art scene.[35][36]