Jean Marie Lucien Pierre Anouilh (/ɑːˈnuːjə/;[1]French:[ʒɑ̃anuj];[a] 23 June 1910 – 3 October 1987) was a Frenchdramatist and screenwriter whose career spanned five decades. Though his work ranged from high drama to absurdist farce, Anouilh is best known for his1944 production ofSophocles'Antigone, which, though performed without objection by censors, was nevertheless seen as an attack onMarshal Pétain'sVichy government. His plays are less experimental than those of his contemporaries, having clearly organized plot and eloquent dialogue.[2] One of France's most prolific writers after World War II, much of Anouilh's work deals with themes of maintaining integrity in a world of moral compromise.[3]
Anouilh was born in Cérisole, a small village on the outskirts ofBordeaux, France and hadBasque ancestry. His father, François Anouilh, was a tailor, and Anouilh maintained that he inherited from him a pride in conscientious craftmanship. He may owe his artistic bent to his mother, Marie-Magdeleine, a violinist who supplemented the family's meager income by playing summer seasons in the casino orchestra in the nearby seaside resort ofArcachon. Marie-Magdeleine worked the night shifts in the music-hall orchestras and sometimes accompanied stage presentations, affording Anouilh ample opportunity to absorb the dramatic performances from backstage. He often attended rehearsals and solicited the resident authors to let him read scripts until bedtime. He first tried his hand at playwriting here, at the age of 12, though his earliest works do not survive.[4]
TheLycée Chaptal, at the corner of rue de Rome and the boulevard des Batignolles
In 1918 the family moved to Paris where the young Anouilh received his secondary education at theLycée Chaptal.Jean-Louis Barrault, later a major French director, was a pupil there at the same time and recalls Anouilh as an intense, rather dandified figure who hardly noticed a boy some two years younger than himself. He earned acceptance into the law school at theSorbonne but, unable to support himself financially, he left after just 18 months to seek work as a copywriter at the advertising agency Publicité Damour. He liked the work, and spoke more than once with wry approval of the lessons in the classical virtues of brevity and precision of language he learned while drafting advertising copy.[5]
The grave of Anouilh, his eldest daughter Catherine (1934–1989) and his last partner Ursula Wetzel (1938–2010) at the cemetery ofPully near Lausanne
Anouilh's financial troubles continued after he was called up to military service in 1929. Supported by only his meager conscription salary, Anouilh married the actress Monelle Valentin in 1931. Though Valentin starred in many of his plays, Anouilh's daughter Caroline (from his second marriage), says the marriage was not a happy one. Anouilh's youngest daughter Colombe even says there was never an official marriage between Anouilh and Valentin. She allegedly had multiple extramarital affairs, which caused Anouilh much pain and suffering. The infidelity weighed heavily on the dramatist as a result of the uncertainty about his own parentage. According to Caroline, Anouilh had learned that his mother had had a lover at the theatre in Arcachon who was actually his biological father. In spite of this, Anouilh and Valentin had a daughter, Catherine, in 1934 who followed the pair into theatre work at an early age. Anouilh's growing family placed further strain on his already limited finances. Determined to break into writing full-time, he began to write comic scenes for the cinema to supplement their income.[6]
At the age of 25, Anouilh found work as a secretary to the French actor and directorLouis Jouvet at the Comédie des Champs-Elysées. Though Anouilh's boss had happily lent him some of the set furniture left over from the production ofJean Giraudoux's playSiegfried to furnish his modest home, the director was not interested in encouraging his assistant's attempts at playwriting.[7] Jouvet had risen to fame in the early 1930s through his collaborations with the playwright Giraudoux, and together the two worked to shift focus from the authorial voice of the director (which had dominated the French stage since the early twentieth century) back to the playwright and his text.
Giraudoux was an inspiration to Anouilh and, with the encouragement of the acclaimed playwright, he began writing again in 1929. Before the end of the year he made his theatrical debut withHumulus le muet, a collaborative project withJean Aurenche. It was followed by his first solo projects,L'Hermine (The Ermine) in 1932 andMandarine in 1933, both produced byAurélien Lugné-Poe, an innovative actor and stage manager who was then head of theThéâtre de l'Œuvre.[8] Ruled by the philosophy, "the word creates the decor," Lugné-Poe let Anouilh's lyrical prose shine in front of a backdrop of simple compositions of line and color that created a unity of style and mood.[9]
The plays were not great successes, closing after 37 and 13 performances respectively, but Anouilh persevered, following it up with a string of productions, most notablyY'avait un prisonnier (1935). These works, most in collaboration with the experimental Russian directorGeorges Pitoëff, were considered promising despite their lack of commercial profits, and the duo continued to work together until they had their first major success in 1937 withLe voyageur sans bagage (Traveller Without Luggage). In subsequent years, there was rarely a season in Paris that did not prominently feature a new Anouilh play and many of these were also being exported to England and America.[10] After 1938, however, much of Anouilh's later work was directed by the prominent Paris scenic designerAndré Barsacq, who had taken over as director of theThéâtre de l'Atelier afterCharles Dullin's retirement in 1940. Barsacq was a champion for Anouilh and their affiliation was a major factor in the playwright's continued success after the war.[11]
In the 1940s, Anouilh turned from contemporary tales to more mythical, classic, and historic subjects. With protagonists who asserted their independence from the fated past, themes during this period are more closely related to the existential concerns of such writers asJean-Paul Sartre andAlbert Camus. The most famous play of this group isAntigone, which "established Anouilh as a leading dramatist, not only because of the power with which he drew the classic confrontation between the uncompromising Antigone and the politically expedient Creon, but also because French theatre-goers under the occupation read the play as a contemporary political parable."[12] His post-war plays dealt with similar concerns and includedRoméo et Jeannette,Médée (Medea), and Anouilh'sJoan of Arc storyL'Alouette (The Lark), which, in its distinct optimism, rivalled the commercial success ofAntigone.
Anouilh himself grouped his plays of this period on the basis of their dominant tone, publishing his later works in collected volumes to reflect what he felt "represented the phases of his evolution and loosely resembled the distinction between comedy and tragedy."[4]Pièces noires or "Black plays" were tragedies or realistic dramas and includedAntigone,Jézabel, andLa Sauvage (The Restless Heart). This category typically featured "young, idealistic, and uncompromising protagonists [who] are able to maintain their integrity only by choosing death."[13] By contrast, Anouilh'spièces roses or "pink plays" were comedies where fantasy dominated with an atmosphere similar to that of fairy tales. In these plays such asLe Bal des voleurs (Carnival of Thieves),Le Rendez-vous de Senlis (Dinner with the Family) andLéocadia (Time Remembered), the focus is on "the burden of the environment and especially of the past on a protagonist seeking a happier, freer existence."[12]
Most of Anouilh's plays of the late 1940s and into the 1950s become darker and distinctly cruel and, in contrast with his earlier works, begin to feature middle-aged characters who must view life more practically than Anouilh's former idealistic youths. The playwright divided the works of this period intopièces brillantes ("brilliant plays") andpièces grinçantes ("grating plays"). The first group includes works such asL'Invitation au château (Ring Round the Moon) andColombe, and are typified by aristocratic settings and witty banter. The grating plays likeLa Valse des toréadors (Waltz of the Toreadors) andLe Réactionnaire amoureux (The Fighting Cock) are more bitterly funny, trading clever word play for a darker tone of disillusionment.
Another category Anouilh specifies are hispièces costumées ("costume plays") which includeThe Lark,La Foire d'Empoigne (Catch as Catch Can), andBecket, an international success, depicting the historical martyrThomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury who sought to defend the church against the monarch (and his friend),Henry II of England, who had appointed him to his see. So classified because they share historical "costumed" settings, Anouilh also specifies that these plays must also prominently feature an enlightened protagonist seeking "a moral path in a world of corruption and manipulation."[12]
Anouilh's final period begins withLa Grotte (The Cavern), in which he comments on his own progress as a writer and a theatre artist. The central character is a playwright suffering from writer's block who in his frustration recalls the foibles ofLuigi Pirandello'sSix Characters in Search of an Author. Anouilh's work had always contained hints ofmetatheatricality, or commentary on the business of theatre within the world of the play, but in his late works these structures became more fully developed as he begins to write primarily about characters who are dramatists or theatre directors. There is also a pronounced link, during this time, of Anouilh's emphasis of theatre and the family, displaying intimate relationships that are "more profound and more important than the traditional heightened action of 'theatre'".[12]: 53 Antoine, the playwright-protagonist ofCher Antoine; ou, L'Amour raté (Dear Antoine; or, The Love That Failed), asserts that the world must take notice of thesepièces secrètes (secret dramas) and Anouilh scholars have proposed this name,pièces secrètes, to classify the collected works of his latest period."[12][clarification needed]
Anouilh remained staunchly apolitical for most of his life and career. He served in the military during at least two periods, having been drafted into the French Army in 1931 and 1939. He was a prisoner of war for a short time when the Germans conquered France and willingly lived and worked in Paris during the subsequentGerman occupation. Because he refused to take sides during France's collaboration with theAxis Alliance, some critics have branded him as a potential Nazi sympathiser. This controversy escalated as a result of Anouilh's public clashes with the leader of theFree French Forces (and later president of theFifth Republic),General Charles de Gaulle. In the mid-1940s, Anouilh and several other intellectuals signed a petition for clemency to save the writerRobert Brasillach, who was condemned to death for being a Nazi collaborator. Brasillach was executed by firing squad in February 1945, despite the outcry from Anouilh and his peers that the new government had no right to persecute individuals for "intellectual crimes" in the absence of military or political action.[14] Nevertheless, Anouilh refused to comment on his political views, writing in a letter to the Belgian critic Hubert Gignoux in 1946, "I do not have a biography and I am very happy about it. The rest of my life, as long as God wills it, will remain my personal business, and I will withhold the details of it."[15]Anouilh's plays provide the most important clues about his political point of view, though their reputation for ambiguity further complicates the matter. For instance,Antigone provides anallegorical representation of the debate between the idealistic members of theFrench Resistance and the pragmatism of the collaborationists. Though many have read the play as having a strong anti-Nazi sentiment, the fact that the Vichy Regime allowed the piece to be performed without censure testifies to the fact that it was potentially seen as supportive of the occupation in its time.[16][17] Though the playwright romanticizes Antigone's sense of honor and duty to what is morally right, in this case resisting the Nazi forces, it can also be said that Anouilh, like Sophocles before him, makes a convincing argument for Creon's method of leadership.[18]
In 1970 his work was recognized with thePrix mondial Cino Del Duca. In 2012, the Nobel Records were opened after 50 years and it was revealed that Anouilh was among a shortlist of authors considered for the 1962Nobel Prize in Literature, along withJohn Steinbeck (winner),Robert Graves,Lawrence Durrell andKaren Blixen.[19] According to a report inThe Guardian, "It is not clear why Anouilh was passed over, but the French poetSaint-John Perse had taken the Nobel in 1960, meaning that France was well represented on the roster of winners, andSvenska Dagbladet reveals thatJean-Paul Sartre, who won the prize in 1964, was starting to be seriously considered as a candidate."[19]
By the end of his career, Anouilh's reputation outstripped those of some of his contemporaries despite his repertoire remaining mostly confined to theatre and film. Most French dramatists of the 1930s and 1940s, including Anouilh's most significant contemporary influence, Giraudoux, not only wrote for the stage but also composed poetry, novels, or essays.[4] Nevertheless, he remained prolific, consistently producing and publishing performance works for more than fifty years.
Anouilh's early works were "naturalistic studies of a sordid and corrupt world."[5] Many of these plays present the reader with the striking and inescapable dichotomy between pragmatism and a sort of transcendent idealism. There is little to no "middle ground of ambiguity" that exists where this conflict asserts itself.[20] This is evidenced inLe Voyageur Sans Bagage. The main character Gaston, a World War I veteran who suffers from amnesia, cannot remember the moral depravity of his youth (he slept with his brother's wife and severely injured his best friend). This checkered past is invariably at odds with the near-angelic behavior that he now exhibits, and recognition of this truth forces him to leave his former identity behind, unable to reconcile the two sides of himself. In denouncing his past, Gaston reclasses his freedom as an illusion, but one of his own making. He befriends a young English boy and shows him his identifying scar; this gesture allows the boy to describe Gaston to the authorities, thereby claiming him as kin. With a new life and a new family, Gaston has a fresh start.[4] David I. Grossvogel, describes this situation as the "restoration of a childhood paradise lost," attributingLe Voyageur Sans Bagage as the beginning of Anouilh's search to justify the unhappiness of his youth.[21] Theatre historian Marvin Carlson agrees, noting that this play epitomizes the "complex tonality and deft dramatic technique" that remained throughout his work, though, he asserts, it was only as the playwright matured that his "dark view of the human condition [reached] its final expression."[12]
Anouilh disagreed with these somber readings of his best works, however, arguing that, like all great French literature, his plays had found ways to laugh at misfortune. "Thanks to Molière," Anouilh said, "the true French theatre is the only one that is not gloomy, in which we laugh like men at war with our misery and our horror. This humor is one of France's messages to the world."[22]
Disclosing his thoughts on French theatre and his personal perspective as a playwright, he said that the perception of his work was often misguided:
I am played in private theaters, so I write for the bourgeoisie. One has to rely on the people who pay for their places; the people who support the theater are bourgeois. But this public has changed: They have such a terror of not being in touch, of missing out on a fashionable event that they no longer exist as a decisive force. I think the public has lost its head. They now say that a play can't be that good if they can understand it. My plays are not hermetic enough. It's rather Molièresque, don't you think?
In the 1950s, Anouilh examined his antagonism with General de Gaulle inL'Hurluberlu, ou Le Reactionnaire amoureux (1958) andLe Songe du critique (1960). He began to lose the favor of audiences and critics alike, however, with the emergence of such playwrights asEugène Ionesco andSamuel Beckett. Though he shared with these authors a "similar desperate vision of human existence,"[24] these new absurdist theatres' pursuit of alternative dramaturgies made Anouilh's semi-realistic plays seem dull and old-fashioned. In the 1980s Anouilh reinvented himself as a director, staging his own plays as well as those of other authors. He died of a heart attack in Lausanne, Switzerland on 3 October 1987. By then divorced from Monelle Valentin, he was survived by his second wife, Nicole Lançon, and four children.[25]
La Valse des toréadors. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 9 January 1952. Directed by Roland Piétri. With Claude Sainval, Marie Ventura, Madeleine Barbulée,François Guérin.
L'Alouette. Théâtre Montparnasse-Gaston Baty: 14 October 1952. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Suzanne Flon, Michel Bouquet,Marcel André.
Médée. Théâtre de l'Atelier: 26 March 1953. Directed by André Barsacq. With Jean Servais,Michèle Alfa,Jean-Paul Belmondo. (First produced in Hamburg, Germany on 2 November 1948.)[26]
Cécile ou l'École des pères. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 29 October 1954. Directed by Roland Piétri. WithHenri Guisol, Catherine Anouilh, Maurice Méric.
Pauvre Bitos ou le Dîner de têtes. Théâtre Montparnasse-Gaston Baty: 12 October 1956. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Michel Bouquet,Bruno Cremer,Pierre Mondy, Roland Piétri.
La Petite Molière. Co-written byRoland Laudenbach. Odéon-Théâtre de France: 12 November 1959. Directed by Jean-Louis Barrault. With Jean-Louis Barrault, Madeleine Renaud, Simone Valère,Jean Desailly, Catherine Anouilh.
Le Songe du critique. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 5 November 1960. Directed by the author. WithJean Le Poulain,Denise Benoît,François Périer, Claude Sainval, Roland Piétri.
La Grotte. Théâtre Montparnasse-Gaston Baty: 6 October 1961. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Jean Le Poulain,Lila Kedrova.
L'Orchestre. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 20 October 1962. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Madeleine Barbulée,Dominique Davray,Henri Virlogeux.
La Foire d'empoigne. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 20 October 1962. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Paul Meurisse, Henri Virlogeux.
Le Boulanger, la boulangère et le petit mitron. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 14 November 1968. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Michel Bouquet,Sophie Daumier,Jean Parédès, Édith Scob.
Ne réveillez pas Madame. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 21 October 1970. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With François Périer, Jean Parédès,Danièle Lebrun.
Tu étais si gentil quand tu étais petit. Théâtre Antoine: 17 January 1972. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Francine Bergé, Danièle Lebrun,Claude Giraud.
Le Directeur de l'Opéra. Comédie des Champs-Elysées: 27 September 1972. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Paul Meurisse, Jean Parédès, Madeleine Barbulée.
Monsieur Barnett. Café-Théâtre des Halles: 29 October 1974. Directed by Nicole Anouilh. WithJean Périmony, Bernard Tixier, Christine Murillo. (First produced in Bristol, UK on 12 September 1967.)
La Culotte. Théâtre de l'Atelier: 19 September 1978. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. With Jean-Pierre Marielle,Christian Marin,Gilberte Géniat.
Le Nombril, Paris, Théâtre de l'Atelier: 24 September 1981. Directed by the author and Roland Piétri. WithBernard Blier,Françoise Brion,Guy Grosso, Christian Marin.
Jezebel. Oxford Playhouse: 22 September 1958. Directed byFrank Hauser. WithDirk Bogarde,Hermione Baddeley, Doreen Aris. (Premiered in Rio de Janeiro in 1942, this play was never produced in France.)
Monsoon. Screenplay by Forest Judd, David Robinson andLeonardo Bercovici, based on the Anouilh playRoméo et Jeannette. CFG Productions/Film Group Judd, 1952.
O, ra tkbilia ganshorebis es nazi sevda (Oh, How Sweet is This Tender Sadness on Parting). Screenplay by Keti Dolidze, based on the Anouilh playEurydice. Georgian-Film, 1991.
Vous n'avez encore rien vu (You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet). Screenplay byAlain Resnais and Laurent Herbiet, based on the Anouilh playsEurydice andCher Antoine ou l'Amour raté. F Comme Film, 2012.
Y'avait un prisonnier (Paris: L'Illustration, 1935).
Le Voyageur sans bagage (Paris: L'Illustration, 1937); translated by John Whiting asTraveler without Luggage (London: Methuen, 1959).
Les Bal des voleurs (Paris: Fayard, 1938).
Antigone (Paris: Didier, 1942); translated by Lewis Galantière as Antigone (New York: Random House, 1946).
Pièces roses (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1942) – comprisesLe Bal des voleurs,Le Rendez-vous de Senlis, andLéocadia;Le Bal des voleurs translated by Lucienne Hill asThieves' Carnival (London: Methuen, 1952);Le Rendez-vous de Senlis translated by Edwin O. Marsh asDinner with the Family (London: Methuen, 1958); Léocadia translated by Patricia Moyes asTime Remembered (London: S. French, 1954).
Pièces noires (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1942) – comprisesL'Hermine,La Sauvage, Le Voyageur sans bagage, andEurydice;L'Hermine translated by Miriam John asThe Ermine, inJean Anouilh ... Plays, volume 1 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1958);La Sauvage translated by Hill asRestless Heart (London: Methuen, 1957);Eurydice translated by Kitty Black asPoint of Departure (London: S. French, 1951); republished asLegend of Lovers (New York: Coward-McCann, 1952).
Nouvelles pièces noires (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1946) – comprisesJézabel,Antigone,Roméo et Jeannette, andMédée;Roméo et Jeannette translated by John asRomeo and Jeannette, inJean Anouilh ... Plays, volume 1 (New York : Hill & Wang, 1958); "Médée" translated inThe Modern Theatre, volume 5, edited by Eric Bentley (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957).
Pièces brillantes (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1951) – comprisesL'Invitation au château,Colombe,La Répétition, ou L'Amour puni, andCécile, ou L'Ecole des pères;
L'Alouette (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1953); translated by Fry asThe Lark (London: Methuen, 1955).
Pièces grinçantes (Paris: La Table ronde, 1956) – comprisesArdèle, ou La Marguerite,La Valse des Toréadors,Ornifle, ou Le Courant d'air, andPauvre Bitos, ou Le Dîner de têtes;Ardèle, ou La Marguerite translated by Hill asArdèle (London: Methuen, 1951);La Valse des Toréadors translated by Hill asWaltz of the Toreadors (London: Elek, 1953; New York: Coward-McCann, 1953);Ornifle, ouLe Courant d'air translated by Hill asIt's Later Than You Think (Chicago: Dramatic, 1970); Pauvre Bitos, ou Le dîner de têtes translated by Hill as Poor Bitos (London: Methuen, 1956).
Humulus le muet, with Jean Aurenche (Grenoble: Françaises Nouvelles, 1958).
Becket, ou L'Honneur de Dieu (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1959); translated by Hill asBecket, or The Honor of God (New York: Coward-McCann, 1960).
La Petite Molière (Paris: L'Avant-Scène, 1959).
L'Hurluberlu, ou Le Réactionnaire amoureux (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1959); translated by Hill asThe Fighting Cock (London: Methuen, 1967).
Madame de ..., translated by Whiting (London: S. French, 1959).
Le Songe du critique, edited by Richard Fenzl, (Dortmund: Lensing, 1960).
La Foire d'empoigne (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1960); translated by Anouilh andRoland Piétri asCatch as Catch Can, inJean Anouilh ... Plays, volume 3 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967).
La Grotte (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1961); translated by Hill asThe Cavern (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966).
Fables (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1962).
Le Boulanger, la boulangère, et le petit mitron (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1969).
Cher Antoine, ou L'Amour rate (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1969); translated by Hill asDear Antoine, or The Love That Failed (New York: Hill & Wang, 1971; London: Eyre Methuen, 1971).
Les Poissons rouges, ou Mon Père, ce héros (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1970).
Ne Réveillez pas Madame (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1970).
Nouvelles Pièces grinçantes (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1970)--includesL'Hurluberlu, ou Le Réactionnaire amoureux,La Grotte,L'Orchestre,Le Boulanger, la boulangère, et le petit mitron, andLes Poissons rouges, ou Mon Père, ce héros; L'Orchestre translated by John asThe Orchestra, inJean Anouilh ... Plays, volume 3 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967).
Tu étais si gentil quand tu étais petit (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1972).
Le Directeur de l'opéra (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1972); translated by Hill asThe Director of the Opera (London: Eyre Methuen, 1973).
L'Arrestation (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1975); translated by Hill asThe Arrest (New York: S. French, 1978).
Le Scénario (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1976).
Chers Zoiseaux (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1977).
La Culotte (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1978).
La Belle vie suivi de Episode de la vie d'un auteur (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1980).
Le Nombril (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1981); translated by Michael Frayn as Number One (London & New York: S. French, 1985).
Oedipe, ou Le Roi boiteux: d'après Sophocle (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1986).
La Vicomtesse d'Eristal n'a pas reçu son balai mécanique: Souvenirs d'un jeune homme (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1987).
William Shakespeare,Trois comédies: Comme il vous plaira, La Nuit des rois, Le Conte d'hiver, [Three Comedies: As You like It, Twelfth Night, and The Winter's Tale] translated by Anouilh and Claude Vincent (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1952).
Graham Greene,L'Amant complaisant, translated by Anouilh and Nicole Anouilh (Paris: Laffont, 1962).
Oscar Wilde,Il est important d'être aimé, [The Importance of Being Earnest] translated by Anouilh and Nicole Anouilh (Paris: Papiers, 1985).
^Norwich, John Julius (1990).Oxford Illustrated Encyclopedia Of The Arts. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 18.ISBN978-0198691372.
^Smith, Christopher Norman (1985).Jean Anouilh, Life, Work, and Criticism. London: York Press.ISBN0-919966-42-X.
^abcdRocchi, Michel (2006). Mary Anne O'Neil (ed.)."Jean Marie Lucien Pierre Anouilh" in Twentieth-Century French Dramatists. Detroit: Gale Biography in Context.
^abcdefCarlson, Marvin (1995)."Jean Anouilh" in Reference Guide to World Literature. New York: St. James Press. Available online as:Carlson, Marvin (2003). "Anouilh, Jean (Marie Lucien Pierre)". In Pendergast, Sara; Pendergast, Tom (eds.).Reference Guide to World Literature. Vol. 1,Authors (3rd ed.). St. James Press. pp. 50–53 – via Gale eBooks (Cengage Learning).
^Kaplan, Alice (2000).The Collaborator: The Trial and Execution of Robert Brasillach. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-42414-6.
^Ginestier, Paul (1969).Jean Anouilh: Textes de Anouilh, points de vue critique témoignages. Paris: Seghers.
^Wiles, David (2000)."Politics." in Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 63.ISBN0521648572.
^Krauss, Kenneth (2004).The Drama of Fallen France; Reading la Comédie sans Tickets. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 106–109.ISBN0791459535.
^Pucciani, Orestes (1954).The French Theatre Since 1930. Boston: Ginn. p. 146.
^Grossvogel, David I. (1958).The Self-conscious Stage in Modern French Drama. New York: Columbia University Press.
^Qtd. in Hotchman, Stanley (1972).McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama. McGraw Hill.
^Porter, Melinda Camber (1993).Through Parisian Eyes: Reflections on Contemporary French Arts and Culture. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo. pp. 29–35.ISBN0-306-80540-5.
^Liukkonen, Petri and Ari Pesonen. "Jean Anouilh (1910-1987)".{{cite web}}:Missing or empty|url= (help)
