Jawi was developed during theadvent of Islam inMaritime Southeast Asia, supplanting the earlierBrahmic scripts used during Hindu-Buddhist era. The oldest evidence of Jawi writing can be found on the 14th centuryTerengganu Inscription Stone, a text inClassical Malay that contains a mixture of Malay, Sanskrit and Arabic vocabularies. However, the script may have used as early as the 9th century, whenPeureulak Sultanate has been established by the son of a Persian preacher. There are two competing theories on the origins of the Jawi alphabet. Popular theory suggests that the system was developed and derived directly from theArabic script, while scholars likeR. O. Windstedt suggest it was developed with the influence of thePerso-Arabic alphabet.[1]
The ensuing trade expansions and the spread of Islam to other areas of Southeast Asia from the 15th century carried the Jawi alphabet beyond the traditional Malay-speaking world. Until the 20th century, Jawi was the standard script of the Malay language, and gave birth to traditionalMalay literature when it featured prominently in official correspondences, religious texts, and literary publications. With the arrival of Western influence through colonization and education, Jawi was relegated to religious education, with the Malay language eventually adopting a form of theLatin alphabet calledRumi that is currently in general usage.
Today, Jawi is one of twoofficial scripts inBrunei. In Malaysia, the position of Jawi is protected under Section 9 of theNational Language Act 1963/67, as it retains a degree of official use in religious and cultural contexts. In some states, most notablyKelantan,Terengganu andPahang, Jawi has co-official script status as businesses are mandated to adopt Jawi signage and billboards. Jawi is also used as an alternative script among Malay communities in Indonesia and Thailand.[2]
Until the early 20th century, there was no standard spelling system for Jawi. The earliestorthographic reform towards a standard system was in 1937 by The Malay Language and Johor Royal Literary Book Pact. This was followed by another reform byZa'aba, published in 1949. The final major reform was theEnhanced Guidelines of Jawi Spelling issued in 1986, which was based on the Za'aba system. Jawi can be typed using theJawi keyboard.
According toKamus Dewan,Jawi (جاوي) is a term synonymous to 'Malay'.[7] The term has been used interchangeably with 'Malay' in other terms includingBahasa Jawi orBahasa Yawi (Kelantan-Pattani Malay, aMalayan language used inSouthern Thailand),Masuk Jawi[8] (literally "to become Malay", referring to the practice ofcircumcision to symbolise thecoming of age), andJawi pekan orJawi Peranakan (literally 'Malay of the town' or 'Malay born of', referring to the Malay-speaking Muslims of mixed Malay and Indian ancestry).[9] With verb-buildingcircumfixesmen-...-kan,menjawikan (literally'to make something Malay'), also refers to the act of translating a foreign text into Malay language. The phraseTulisan Jawi that means'Jawi script' is another derivative that carries the meaning 'Malay script'.[7]
A tombstone inAceh with Jawi inscription dated from 16th or 17th century. The inscription are: 1st row:bahwasanya inilah nisan kubur 2nd row:yang mulia bernama Meurah Meukuta 3rd row:bergelar orang kaya kapai[10]
Prior to the onset ofIslamisation, thePallava script, Nagari, and old Sumatran scripts were used in writing the Malay language. This is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions inOld Malay, notably theKedukan Bukit inscription andTalang Tuo inscription. Thespread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. Among the oldest archaeological artefacts inscribed with Arabic script are; a tombstone of Syeikh Rukunuddin dated 48AH (668/669 CE) in Barus,Sumatra; a tombstone dated 290 AH (910 CE) on the mausoleum of Syeikh Abdul Qadir Ibn Husin Syah Alam located inAlor Setar,Kedah; a tombstone found inPekan,Pahang dated 419 AH (1026 CE); a tombstone discovered inPhan Rang,Vietnam dated 431 AH (1039 CE); a tombstone dated 440 AH (1048 CE) found inBandar Seri Begawan,Brunei; and a tombstone of Fatimah Binti Maimun Bin Hibat Allah found inGresik,East Java dated 475 AH (1082 CE).[11][12] Islam was spread from the coasts to the interior of the island and generally in a top-down process in which rulers were converted and then introduced more or less orthodox versions of Islam to their peoples. The conversion of KingPhra Ong Mahawangsa ofKedah in 1136 and KingMerah Silu ofSamudra Pasai in 1267 were among the earliest examples.
At the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation ofQuran as well assalat. The Arabic script was accepted by the Malay community together with their acceptance of Islam and was adapted to suit spokenClassical Malay. Six letters were added for sounds not found in Arabic:ca,pa,ga,nga,va andnya. Some Arabic letters are rarely used as they represent sounds not present in modernMalay however may be used to reflect the original spelling of Arabic loanwords. The sounds represented by these letters may be assimilated into sounds found in Malay's native phoneme inventory or in some instances appear unchanged. Like the other Arabic scripts, some letters are obligatorily joined while some are never joined.[13][14] This was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing inTurkey,Persia andIndia which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims.[15]
The oldest remains of Malay using the Jawi script have been found on theTerengganu Inscription Stone, dated 702AH (1303 CE), nearly 600 years after the date of the first recorded existence of Arabic script in the region. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the "Sri Paduka Tuan" of Terengganu, urging his subjects to "extend and uphold"Islam and providing 10 basicSharia laws for their guidance. This has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and theMalay world as a whole.[11]
The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was exclusively restricted to the nobility and monks in monasteries. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class. With the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings. Moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of written literature,Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century and lasted right up to the 19th century.[15] Other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably thePegon alphabet used forJavanese inJava and theSerang alphabet used forBuginese inSouth Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensive use ofArabic diacritics and added several letters which were formed differently from Jawi letters to suit the languages. Due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advanced developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi.[16]
The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, supplanting the earlier writing systems. The Malays held the script in high esteem, believing it was a gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the Quran. The use of Jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region.[19]
Jawi is a traditional symbol of Malay culture and civilisation, used not only amongst the ruling class, but also the common people. The Islamisation andMalayisation of the region popularised Jawi into a dominant script.[20]
Examples of royal correspondences in Jawi are the letter between SultanHayat of Ternate and KingJohn III of Portugal (1521), the letter from SultanIskandar Muda of Acèh Darussalam to KingJames I of England (1615), and the letter from SultanAbdul Jalil IV of Johor to KingLouis XV of France (1719).[20] Many literary works such as epics, poetry and prose use the Jawi script. Historical epics such as theMalay Annals, as listed byUNESCO under Memories of the World, are among the countless epics written by the Malay people. TheSufic poems byHamzah Fansuri and many others contributed to the richness and depth of the Malay civilisation.[peacock prose]
Jawi script was the official script for theUnfederated Malay States when they were British protectorates.[citation needed] The growth of the printing industry in early 20th century Malaysia saw the development of a wide range of Jawi literature. The primary topics of Jawi books were religious and political. From the 1940s to the 1960s,erotica (picisan) began to be printed in Jawi, although many authors later switched to Rumi.[21] A 1954 meeting of theKongres Bahasa [ms] saw Rumi officially adopted as a Malay script alongside Jawi in theFederation of Malaya, and government policy over the next few decades favoured Rumi in education, resulting in Jawi literacy becoming less common. Jawi was removed from the national curriculum in the mid-1980s.[22]
As the public educational system stopped producing Jawi texts, Jawi literature printed by private companies became dominant. Most privately produced Jawi textbooks were targeted at Islamic schools, and their contents were more conservative than in the former public school textbooks. This shift in usage led to Jawi becoming closely associated with Islam and Malay identity, with Rumi replacing its use for non-religious purposes. Over time, the use of Jawi in Malaysia became a sensitive issue. Some view attempts to promote Jawi as Islamisation orMalay chauvinism. Conversely, some view Jawi as a religious script that should not be used by non-Muslims.[22]
Street name signs inShah Alam, Malaysia include both Jawi and Latin script.A similarly biscriptal street sign in Johor Bahru.A supermarket in Brunei with Jawi and Latin script.Street name signs inPekanbaru,Riau, Indonesia used both Jawi and Latin script.
Today, Jawi is one of the official scripts ofBrunei.[19] In Malaysia, it is used for religious and cultural administration in the states ofTerengganu,Kelantan,Kedah,Perlis,Penang,Pahang andJohor.[citation needed] Various efforts were in place to revive the Jawi script in Malaysia and Brunei due to its role in the Malay and Islamic spheres. Jawi is also seen on the reverse ofMalaysian ringgit andBrunei dollar banknotes. Malays inPatani still use Jawi today for the same reasons.[citation needed]
In August 2019, the Malaysian Government's plans to introduce the teaching of Jawi at the most basic level in ethnicChinese andTamil vernacular schools attracted opposition from ethnic Chinese and Indian education groups, which claimed that the move would lead to anIslamization of the Malaysian education system.[23][24][25] The Chinese educationist groupDong Jiao Zong organised a conference calling on the Malaysian Government to rescind its decision in late December 2019. Perhaps fearing violence, theRoyal Malaysia Police obtained a court injunction against it on the grounds it would trigger ethnic tensions.[26][27]
The state government of Kedah in Malaysia has long defended the use of Jawi in the state.[28][29][30] TheMenteri Besar of Kedah has denied the allegation that the state government was trying to create an Islamic state ambience by promoting the use of Jawi in 2008, saying that it is a normal occurrence evidenced by Chinese coffeeshops and pawnshops having signboards written in Jawi.[28] This can further be seen later on when the Kedah state government has shown its support with Johor state government's move to use Jawi in official matters in 2019.[30] The exco of local authority of the state of Kedah had also stated that the Jawi script in billboards in Kedah is not forbidden, but rather recommended.[29] He claims that the recommendation to use Jawi script has been gazetted in the state law, and that it has been part of the state identity to have billboards in Jawi script in addition to other scripts.[29] He also stated that there are high demands in incorporating Jawi script in billboards in Kedah.[29]
Kuantan, the state capital of Pahang in Malaysia has introduced the usage of Jawi on all signage across the city from 1 August 2019.[31] This was done after a recommendation from the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who was then the Regent of Pahang, to uphold usage of the writing system.[32] The Pahang state government has since expanded the order and made it mandatory for every signage statewide including road signs to display Jawi alongside other scripts from 1 January 2020 after being delayed a few times.[33] Premises that fail to comply with this order will be fined up to a maximum of RM250, with the possibility of revocation of their business licences if they still do not comply afterwards.[34] In the early stage, usage of Jawi stickers are allowed to put on existing signage instead of replacing the whole signage.[35]
InJohor, the test required to become a lawyer in aSyariah Court is written in Jawi. A lack of Jawi literacy is thought to be a contributing factor to a lack of Syariah lawyers in the state.[36]
Indonesia, having multiple regional and native languages, uses the Latin script for writing itsown standard of Malay in general. Nonetheless, the Jawi script does have a regional status innative Malay areas such asRiau,Riau archipelago,Jambi,South Sumatra (i.ePalembang Malay language),Aceh, andKalimantan (i.e.Banjar language).[37][38] This is due to the fact that regional and native languages are compulsory studies in the basic education curriculum of each region (examples includeJavanese for Javanese regions,Sundanese for Sundanese regions,Madurese for Maduranese regions, and Jawi for Malay regions).[37] Jawi script is widely used in Riau and Riau Island province, where road signs and government building signs are written in this script.[39] A sister variant calledPegon is used to write Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese and is still widely used in traditional religious schools acrossJava, but has been supplanted in common writing by theLatin alphabet and, in some cases,Javanese script andSundanese script.
Also known asha kecil (حاء کچيل) orha pedas (حاء ڤدس) Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+062D
kha (khO) خاء
خ
ـخ
ـخـ
خـ
/x/
kh
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+062E
dal دل
د
ـد
/d/
d
U+062F
zal ذال
ذ
ـذ
/z/ or/ð/
z
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+0630
ra (rO) راء
ر
ـر
/r/
r
U+0631
zai زاي
ز
ـز
/z/
z
Mainly used in loanwords of European origin
U+0632
sin سين
س
ـس
ـسـ
سـ
/s/
s
U+0633
syin شين
ش
ـش
ـشـ
شـ
/ʃ/
sy, sh
Mainly used in loanwords of European origin
U+0634
sad (sOd) صاد
ص
ـص
ـصـ
صـ
/s/
s
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+0635
dad (dOd) ضاد
ض
ـض
ـضـ
ضـ
/d/
d
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+0636
ta (tO) طاء
ط
ـط
ـطـ
طـ
/t/
t
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+0637
za (zO) ظاء
ظ
ـظ
ـظـ
ظـ
/z/
z
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+0638
ain عين
ع
ـع
ـعـ
عـ
/ʔ/
a, i, u, -k
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+0639
ghain غين
غ
ـغ
ـغـ
غـ
/ɣ/
gh
Mainly used in Arabic loanwords
U+063A
nga ڠا
ڠ
ـڠ
ـڠـ
ڠـ
/ŋ/
ng
Additional letter not present in Arabic
U+06A0
fa فاء
ف
ـف
ـفـ
فـ
/f/
f
Mainly used in loanwords of European origin
U+0641
pa ڤا
ڤ
ـڤ
ـڤـ
ڤـ
/p/
p
Additional letter not present in Arabic
Similar to Persian "پ" (Pe) in pronunciation
U+06A4
qaf قاف
ق
ـق
ـقـ
قـ
/q/ or/k/
q, k
U+0642
kaf کاف
ک
ـک
ـکـ
کـ
/k/
k
U+06A9
ga ݢا
ݢ
ـݢ
ـݢـ
ݢـ
/ɡ/
g
Additional letter not present in Arabic
Similar to Persian "گ" (Gaf)
U+0762
lam لام
ل
ـل
ـلـ
لـ
/l/
l
U+0644
mim ميم
م
ـم
ـمـ
مـ
/m/
m
U+0645
nun نون
ن
ـن
ـنـ
نـ
/n/
n
U+0646
wau واو
و
ـو
/w/ and/u,o,ɔ/
w, u, o
U+0648
va ۏا
ۏ
ـۏ
/v/
v
Additional letter not present in Arabic Mainly used in loanwords of European origin
U+06CF
ha هاء
ه
ـه
ـهـ
هـ
/h/
h
Also known asha besar (هاء بسر) orha simpul (هاء سيمڤول)
U+0647
hamzah همزة
ء
ء
/ʔ/
∅
U+0621
ya ياء
ي
ـي
ـيـ
يـ
/j/ and/i,e,ɛ/
y, i, etaling (é)
U+064A
ye يى
ى
ـى
ـىـ
ىـ
/ə,a/
-epepet (ĕ), a
Also known asalif maqsurah (الف مقصورة) Mainly used in loanwords of European origin
U+0649
nya ڽا
ڽ
ـڽ
ـڽـ
ڽـ
/ɲ/
ny
Additional letter not present in Arabic
U+06BD
Letters with no initial and middle forms adopt either isolated or final form, because they cannot be joined with suffixing letter. (ا,د,ذ,ر,ز,و,ۏ)
The letterhamzah may also appear in itsthree-quarter form "ء" (hamzah tiga suku), abovealif "أ", belowalif "إ" or housed (aboveya "ئ" orwau "ؤ").[e]
Modern Jawi spelling is based on theDaftar Kata Bahasa Melayu (DKBM): Rumi-Sebutan-Jawi dictionary. Older texts may use different spellings for some words.[41] Nonetheless, even different modern sources[42] may use different spelling conventions; they may differ especially in the usage of thematres lectionis (alifا,wauو andyaي) and thehamzah tiga sukuء, as well as in the spelling of vowels and consonant clusters in loanwords fromEnglish.[citation needed] One source[43] tends to use the following conventions;[44] there are numerous exceptions to them nonetheless.
Loanwords may be spelled differently. Particularly, loanwords fromArabic often keep their original spellings.
The letterssaث,haح,khaخ,zalذ,sadص,dadض,taط,zaظ,ainع,ghainغ, andta marbutahة are mostly used to spell Arabic loanwords, e.g.,Selasaثلاث,hurufحروف,khabarخبر,fasalفصل,daruratضرورة,talakطلاق,zohorظهر,saatساعة,sunatسنة,khasiatخصية. The lettervaۏ is mostly used to spell English loanwords, e.g.,universitiاونيۏرسيتي. The letterszaiز,syinش,faف, andyeى are mostly used to spell loanwords from English, Arabic or Dutch, e.g.,zooزو,zapinزاڤين,syifشيف,syukurشکور,filemفيلم,fakirفقير,nasionalismeناسيوناليسمى, andtakwaتقوى.
Rumix used to spell loanwords from English may be spelled using different Jawi letters, depending on pronunciation, e.g.,kaf-sinکس insinaran Xسينرن ايکس orzaiز inxenonزينون.
The lettersyinش is also used to represent⟨sh⟩ especially for words derived fromClassical Malay language, e.g.,مهاريشيmaharishi; and loanwords, e.g.,شيرڤاSherpa.
Native Malay root morphemes with Rumik in the syllable coda areglottal stops (pronounced[ʔ]) and are written withqafق, e.g.,tengokتيڠوق,laksaلقسا,baiklahباءيقله,kotakkuکوتقکو,kotakmuکوتقمو. Loanwords where the Rumik is derived from Western languages are spelled withkaf: the initial and medial forms use the glyphک, e.g.,klinikکلينيک andteksiتيکسي; the finalk form dominantly usesک instead ofك, although the latter Arabic glyph is alternatively found often in some old writings and signages (e.g. variant spelling ofklinik asکلينيك).
The letterfaف was historically used to represent/p/ (Jawi:paڤ) and such usage may still be found in archaic Jawi spellings. This is because/f/ is a non-native consonant in Malay found only in loanwords and in the past was often approximated as a/p/.
Though there are exceptions,[a] vowels and diphthongs tend to be spelled this way:
^a When spelling vowels, there are many exceptions to the conventions stated above and below. Common exceptions includeadaاد,diد,diaدي,danدان,iaاي,jikaجک,jugaجوݢ,limaليم,keک,kitaکيت,merekaمريک,iniاين,ituايت,padaڤد,sukaسوک, andtigaتيݢ.
^b Some words spelled distinctly in Rumi may behomographs in Jawi, e.g.,sembilan andsambilan are bothسمبيلن,markah andmerekah are bothمرکه,sesi andsisi are bothسيسي,biro andbiru are bothبيرو,borong andburung are bothبوروڠ, andgolong andgulung are bothݢولوڠ.
^c Using or omittingalifا when representing/a/ in closed syllables and in the last letter of a root morpheme:
When representing/a/,alifا is mostly omitted inCVC-syllables.
However, it is usually not omitted in monosyllabic words that start withwauو, e.g.,wauواو,wapواڤ,wangواڠ.
It is also usually not omitted in root morphemes which first syllable is open and contains/e/ and which second syllable is closed and begins with/wa/, e.g., words with a /Ce.waC/ structure (where each C is a consonant) likelewahليواه,mewahميواه,dewanديوان,tewasتيواس,rewangريواڠ,gewangݢواڠ,sewatسيوات,kelewangکليواڠ,kedewasکديواس,dewanggaديواڠݢ.
Finalalifا is generally kept to represent/a/[ə] at the end of a word.
However, in native Malay disyllabic root morphemes with the form /Ca.C*a/ [Ca.C*ə], where /C*/ is any of the following 12 consonantsbaب,taت,paڤ,sinس,gaݢ,nunن,nyaڽ,caچ,kafک,jimج,mimم,yaی (mnemonic:betapa segannya cik jamبتاڤ سݢنڽ چيق جم), finalalifا is not written, e.g.,rabaراب,mataمات,sapaساڤ,rasaراس,ragaراݢ,manaمان,hanyaهاڽ,bacaباچ,rayaراي,bakaباک,rajaراج,namaنام, andsamaسام.
Some native Malay trisyllabic root morphemes ending with/a/[ə], with three open syllables and which include the abovementioned 12 consonants, may also omit the finalalifا.
^d As the final letter of a word, root morpheme-final/ə/ that is spelled withe in Rumi may be represented byyeى in Jawi. In the middle of a word, root morpheme-final/ə/ that is spelled withe in Rumi may be represented byalifا in Jawi instead, e.g.,fatwaفتوى →memfatwakanممفتواکن,metabolismeميتابوليسمى →memetabolismekanممتابوليسماکن.
^e Thehamzah may be used to spell some diphthongs. Sources differ as to whether and when it should be on the lineء, or placed above the previous mater lectionis, such as inalif withhamzah aboveأ, or even if it should be used at all in some words.
Furthermore, it may be used to represent ahiatus, or a glottal stop[ʔ], especially when (but not limited to) separating vowels at the boundary of a root morpheme and an affix, e.g.,dato'داتوء,baikباءيق,mulaiمولاءي,bauباءو,daunداءون,lautلاءوت,peperiksaanڤڤريقساءن,kemerdekaanکمرديکاءن,diambilدأمبيل,dielakkanدأيلقکن,diertikanدأرتيکن,diikutiدأيکوتي,diolahدأوله,diutamakanدأوتاماکن,keadaanکأداءن,keempatکأمڤت,keindahanکأيندهن,keupayaanکأوڤاياءن,seakan-akanسأکن-اکن,seekorسأيکور,seorangسأورڠ,e-melإي-ميل,eh!إيه!,ateismeاتيئيسمى,dietديئت.
Arabic numerals are the preferred form for writing numerals in Jawi script,Eastern Arabic numerals are generally not used (except when indicating plural words, i.e.,askar-askar =عسکر٢).
Arabic numerals
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Full reduplication of a base word is represented with the numeral٢, e.g.,anak-anakانق٢, while the suffixed reduplication of a base word is represented with the hyphen "-", e.g.,berhati-hatiبرهاتي-هاتي,sayur-sayuranسايور-سايورن, andgunung-ganangݢونوڠ-ݢانڠ.
Punctuation marks used in written Jawi are as follows:
Akin to the Arabic script, Jawi is constructed fromright-to-left. Below is an exemplification of the Jawi script extracted from the first and second verse of the notableGhazal untuk Rabiah,غزال اونتوق ربيعة (English: AGhazal for Rabiah).[45]
Kilauan intan berkelip-kelip di langit tinggi, Dan cahaya menari-nari di langit biru, Tidaklah dapat menenangkan perasaanku, Yang rindukan kehadiran kasih.
Gemersik irama merdu buluh perindu, Dan nyanyian peri-peri dari kayangan, Tidaklah dapat tenteramkan sanubari, Yang mendambakan kepastian kasihmu.
The glimmer of gems twinkling in the lofty sky, And light that dances across upon the azure sky, Are not able to soothe my heart, That pines for the presence of the Beloved.
The melodious rhythm of the reed flute, And the chorus of nymphs from Heaven, Are not able to calm the soul, That craves the certainty of your Love.
^Winstedt, Richard Olaf (1961), "Malay Chronicles from Sumatra and Malaya",Historians of South-East Asia of Historical Writing on the Peoples of Asia,2: 24
^abSudirman, Adi (2019).Ensiklopedia Sejarah Lengkap Indonesia dari Era Klasik Sampai Kontemporer (in Indonesian). Diva Press.ISBN978-602-391-657-3.Sementara itu, bangsa Arab menyebut tanah air kita dengan Jazair al-Jawi (Kepulauan Jawa)
^Oentoro, Jimmy (2010).Indonesia Satu, Indonesia Beda, Indonesia Bisa (in Indonesian). Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.ISBN978-979-22-5814-1.
^Kridalaksana, Harimurti (2001).Wiwara: Pengantar Bahasa dan Kebudayaan Jawa (in Indonesian). Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
^Robert Leon CooperLanguage spread: studies in diffusion and social change, Center for Applied Linguistics, Indiana University Press,: 1982 p. 40ISBN0-253-32000-3.
^abSiti Hawa Haji Salleh (2010).Malay Literature of the 19th Century. Institut Terjemahan Negara Malaysia Berhad. p. 8.ISBN978-983-068-517-5.
^Bagian Kesenian Bara Ai Kesusasteraan Indonesia Catatan-Catatan Tentang Amir Hamza:Bagian Kesenian Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Yogyakarta: 1955.
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