1,000,000 (2014)(Javanese and Indonesian descent are often referred to as 'Al-Jawi' which means people from the Javanese islands (modern Indonesia))[7][8][9]
Western Javanese (North Banten, Cirebon, Tegal,Banyumasan) Central Javanese (Mataram, Pekalongan, Bagelen, Semarangan, Muria, Aneman, Mataraman) and Eastern Javanese (Arekan, Jombang,Tengger,Osing)
Javanese civilisation has been influenced by more than a millennium of interactions between the nativeanimismKejawèn and the IndianHindu—Buddhist culture, and this influence is still visible in Javanese history, culture, traditions, and art forms. The ancient Javanese kingdoms ofSinghasari andMajapahit were among the most powerful maritime empires in the region, whose boundaries included most ofMaritime Southeast Asia and parts ofIndochina. Javanese heritage has created magnificent religious monuments such asBorobudur andPrambanan which are among the world's largest temples.Javanese culture has a strong influence in most of the Southeast Asian countries. In Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore, the influence of Javanese culture can be seen in many aspects of modernMalay culture.[32] Javanese culture has greatly influenced their traditional cuisine with manydishes such assatay,sambal,ketupat,nasi kuning (pulut kuning), androjak.Kris weaponry,batik andronggeng dance art,gamelan musical instruments, andwayang kulit puppetry[33] were introduced to them throughJavanese contact. Javanese culture has also spread widely beyond Southeast Asia to countries such asSri Lanka,South Africa, andSuriname, where many of the Javanese diaspora live.[34][35]
Aperahu with outrigger, Central Java, between 1924 and 1932.
Cross-section of an outrigger boat, between 1863 and 1900.
Like most Indonesian ethnic groups, including theSundanese ofWest Java, the Javanese are ofAustronesian origins whose ancestors are thought to have originated inTaiwan, and migrated through thePhilippines[36] to reach Java between 1,500 BC and 1,000 BC.[37]
Javanese adapted many aspects of Indian culture, such as theRamayana epic
Hindu andBuddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with theIndian subcontinent.[38] Hindu and Buddhist — traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century. The Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy.[36]
The cradle of Javanese culture is commonly described as being inKedu andKewu Plain in the fertile slopes ofMount Merapi as the heart of theMataram kingdom.[39] The earliestSanjaya andSailendra dynasties had their power base there.[40]: 238–239 Between the late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth oftemple construction. The most notable of the temples constructed areKalasan,Sewu,Borobudur andPrambanan.[41] The Java valley was home to thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption of Mount Merapi in 1006 AD.[42] At its peak, the Javanese kingdom had become a dominant empire that exercised its power—not only in Java island, but also inSumatra,Bali,southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of thePhilippines, and theKhmer inCambodia.[43][44][45]Jayavarman II, a prince who had lived at the Sailendra court in Java, brought Javanese art and culture, including the concept of thedevaraja, to Cambodia, laying the foundations for Khmer civilization.[46][47]
The centre of Javanese culture and politics was moved towards the eastern part of the island whenMpu Sindok (r. 929–947) moved the capital of the kingdoms eastward to the valleys of theBrantas River in the 10th century CE. The move was most likely caused by thevolcanic eruption ofMerapi and/or invasion fromSrivijaya.[40]: 238–239
Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediri's rebellion underJayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwang's reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegara's son-in-law,Raden Wijaya with the help ofinvading Mongol troops in March 1293.
Raden Wijaya would later establishMajapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-dayMojokerto,East Java. Kertanegara policies were later continued by the Majapahits under KingHayam Wuruk and his ministerGajah Mada,[48] whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. This expansion marked the greatest extent of Majapahit, making it one of the most influential empires in Indonesian and Southeast Asian history.[49]
Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in thespice trade in the sea route of theSilk Road. Although not major spice producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it withrice, of which Java was a major producer.[50] Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms. It was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade.[51] The ruin of their capital can be found inTrowulan.
Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Java's northern coast such asGresik, Ampel Denta (Surabaya), Tuban, Demak andKudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited toWali Songo.[52]
Java underwent major changes asIslam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed. After this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free.[53] TheSultanate of Demak became the new strongest power, gaining supremacy among city-states on the northern coast of Java.[54]Aside from its power over Javanese city-states, it also gained overlordship of the ports ofJambi andPalembang in eastern Sumatra.[54] Demak played a major role in opposing the newly arrived colonial power, thePortuguese. Demak twice attacked the Portuguese following their capture ofMalacca. They also attackedthe allied forces of the Portuguese and theSunda Kingdom, establishing in the process theSultanate of Banten.
Demak was succeeded by theKingdom of Pajang and finally theSultanate of Mataram. The centre of power moved from coastal Demak, to Pajang in Blora, and later further inland to Mataram lands inKotagede, near present-dayYogyakarta. The Mataram Sultanate reached its peak of power and influence during the reign ofSultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo between 1613 and 1645.
A Javanese courtly ceremony at Keraton Surakarta in 1932
In 1619 theDutch established their trading headquarter inBatavia. Java slowly fell to theDutch East India Company, which would also eventually control most ofMaritime Southeast Asia. The internal intrigue and war of succession, in addition to Dutch interference, caused the Mataram Sultanate to break up intoSurakarta andYogyakarta. The further separation of the Javanese realm was marked by the establishment of theMangkunegaran andPakualaman princedom. Although the real political power in those days actually lay with the colonial Dutch, the Javanese kings, in theirkeratons, still held prestige as the supposed power centre of the Javanese realm, especially in and around Surakarta and Yogyakarta.
Dutch rule was briefly interrupted by British rule in the early 19th century. While short, the British administration led byStamford Raffles was significant, and included the re-discovery ofBorobudur. Conflict with foreign rule was exemplified by theJava War between 1825 and 1830, and the leadership of PrinceDiponegoro.
When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945, the last sovereign Javanese monarchies, represented by the Sri Sultan ofYogyakarta, the Sunanate ofSurakarta, Prince of Mangkunegara and Prince of Pakualaman declared that they would become part of the Republic of Indonesia.
Yogyakarta and Pakualaman were later united to form theYogyakarta Special Region. The Sri sultan became Governor of Yogyakarta, and the Prince of Pakualaman became vice-governor; both were responsible to the President of Indonesia. The Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the war of independence ended and formalized on 3 August 1950. Surakarta was later absorbed as part of theCentral Java province.
Javanese cultural expressions, such aswayang andgamelan, are often used to promote the excellence of Javanese cultureThe Javanese are the inventors ofbatik; it is an Indonesian culture that is widely known and popular in many countries including Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka and West African countries
TheJavanese culture is one of the oldest civilizations and has flourished in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It has gradually absorbed various elements and influences from other cultures, including native reverence for ancestral and natural spirits,Buddhist andHindu dharmic values, Islamic civilization, and to a lesser extent, Christianity, Western philosophy and modern ideas.[55][56] Nevertheless, Javanese culture — especially in the Javanese cultural heartland; those of highly polished aristocratic culture of thekeratons inYogyakarta andSurakarta — demonstrates some specific traits, such as particular concern with elegance and refinement (Javanese:alus), subtlety, politeness, courtesy, indirectness, emotional restraint and consciousness to one's social stature.[57] Javanese culture values harmony and social order highly, and abhors direct conflicts and disagreements. These Javanese values are often promoted through Javanese cultural expressions, such asJavanese dance,gamelan,wayang andbatik. It is also reinforced through adherence to Javaneseadat (traditional rules) in ceremonies, such asSlametan,Satu Suro, Javanese weddings andNaloni Mitoni.
However, the culture ofpesisiran of Javanese north coast and in Eastern Java demonstrates some slightly different traits. They tend to be more open to new and foreign ideas, more egalitarian, and less conscious of one's social stature.[58] Some of these northern settlements — such asDemak, Kudus, Tuban, Gresik and Ampel in Surabaya — have become more overtly Islamic, traditionally because these port towns are among the earliest places that Islamic teachings gained foothold in Java.
Gamelan is one of Javanese cultural expression that demonstrate refinement
Javanese culture is traditionally centered in theCentral Java,Yogyakarta andEast Java. Due to various migrations, it can also be found in other parts of the world, such asSuriname (where 15% of the population are of Javanese descent),[59] the broader Indonesian archipelago region,[34]Cape Malay,[35]Malaysia,Singapore,Netherlands and other countries. The migrants bring with them various aspect of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music, traditional dances[60] and the art ofWayang kulit shadow play.[61] The migration of Javanese people westward has created a coastal Javanese culture in West Java distinct from the inlandSundanese culture.
Javanese is a member of theAustronesian family of languages and is closely related to, but distinct from, otherlanguages of Indonesia.[62] It is notable for its great number of nearly ubiquitousSanskrit loans, found especially in literary Javanese.[63] This is due to the long history of Hindu and Buddhist influences in Java.
The Javanese language was formerly written witha script descended from theBrahmi script, natively known asHanacaraka orCarakan. In addition, Javanese language can also written with right-to-left script descended from theArabic script calledPegon. Upon Indonesian independence it was replaced with a form of theLatin alphabet.While Javanese was not made anofficial language of Indonesia, it has the status of regional language for communication in the Javanese-majority regions. The language also can be viewed as an ethnic language because it is one of the defining characteristics of the Javanese ethnic identity.[62]
The Serat Selarasa (MSS Jav. 28) is the most beautiful illuminated Javanese manuscript in the British Library. It is dated 1804, making it perhaps the earliest finely-illustrated Javanese manuscript known
Javanese intellectuals, writers, poets and men of letters are known for their ability to formulate ideas and creatingidioms for high cultural purpose, through stringing words to express a deeper philosophical meanings. Several philosophical idioms sprung from Javanese classical literature,Javanese historical texts and oral traditions, and have spread into several media and promoted as popularmottos. For example,"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", used as the national motto of theRepublic of Indonesia,"Gemah Ripah Loh Jinawi, Toto Tentrem Kerto Raharjo","Jer Basuki Mawa Bea","Rawe-Rawe rantas, Malang-Malang putung" and"Tut Wuri Handayani".[65]
AmericananthropologistClifford Geertz divided in the 1960s the Javanese community into threealiran or "streams":santri,abangan andpriyayi. According to him, the Santri followed an orthodox interpretationIslam, the abangan followed a syncretic form of Islam that mixed Hindu and animist elements (often termedKejawen), and the priyayi were the nobility.[66]
The Geertz opinion is often opposed today because he mixed the social groups with belief groups. It was also difficult to apply this social categorization in classing outsiders, for example other non-indigenous Indonesians such as persons ofArab,Chinese and Indian descent.
Social stratification is much less rigid in northern coast area.
The Javanesecalendar is used by the Javanese people concurrently with two other calendars, theGregorian calendar and theIslamic calendar. The Gregorian calendar is the official calendar of Indonesia, while the Islamic calendar is used by Muslims and Indonesian government for religious worship and deciding relevantIslamic holidays. The Javanese calendar is presently used mostly for cultural events (such asSiji Suro). The Javanese calendar system is currently a lunar calendar adopted bySultan Agung in 1633, based on the Islamic calendar. Previously, Javanese people used a solar system based on theHindu calendar.
Unlike many other calendars, the Javanese calendar uses a 5-day week known as thePasaran cycle. This is still in use today and is superimposed with 7-day week of theGregorian calendar andIslamic calendar to become what is known as the 35-dayWetonan cycle.
There are hundreds of temples found incentral andeastern Java (Javanese area); this is the most of any area in Indonesia and Southeast AsiaBorobudur, the world's largestBuddhist templeSukuh temple near Tawang Mangu, Central Java
Throughout their long history, the Javanese have produced many important buildings, ranging from Hindu monuments, Buddhiststupa, mortuary temples, palace complexes, and mosques.
Before the rise of Islam, between the 5th to 15th centuries, Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in theIndonesian archipelago, especially inJava. As a result, numerous Hindu temples, locally known asCandi, were constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, the Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption ofMount Merapi in 1006 AD.[67]
Two important religious monuments are the Hindu temple ofPrambanan and the Buddhist temple ofBorobudur. Both of them are 9th century temples andUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites. Both are located nearYogyakarta in the slope of Mount Merapi.
Meanwhile, examples of secular buildings can be seen in the ruins of the former capital city of theMajapahit Kingdom (14th to 16th century AD) inTrowulan,East Java. The complex covers an area of 11 km x 9 km. It consists of various brick buildings, a canal ranging from 20 to 40 meters wide, purification pools, temples and iconic split gates.[68] The capital complex is currently being considered as a candidate for becoming aUNESCO World Heritage Site.
Traditional Javanese buildings can be identified by their trapezoid shaped roofs supported by wooden pillars.[69] Another common feature in Javanese buildings arependopo, pavilions with open-sides and four large pillars. The pillars and other parts of the buildings can be richlycarved. This architecture style can be found atkraton, or palaces, of the Sultanates ofYogyakarta (palaces ofHamengkubuwono andPakualaman) andSurakarta (palaces ofPakubuwono andMangkunegaran).[70]
Traditionalmosques in Java maintain a distinctive Javanese style. Thependopo model is used as the main feature of mosques as prayer halls. A trapezoidal roof is used instead of the more typically Muslimdome. These roofs are often multi-tiered and tiled.[71] In addition to not using domes, traditional Javanese mosques also often lackminarets.[72] The split gate from earlier Hindu-Buddhist period is still used in many mosques and public buildings in Java.
Some notable examples of mosques using traditional Javanese architecture include theAgung Demak Mosque, theMenara Kudus Mosque and theGreat Mosque of Banten. The Kudus Mosque is also of note because it incorporates Hindu-style stone architecture.
The Javanese may have inventedtempehSambal is a typical Javanese chili sauce that is very popular in the region and influences many traditional dishesNasitumpeng, the quintessentially Javanese rice dish, symbolises the volcano
Rice is the staple crop of Javanese cuisine; a meal in Java is not considered a meal without it.[73] It is also an important part of the Javanese cultural identity, differentiating them from residents of other Indonesian islands who eatsago (for exampleMoluccans) and expatriates fromwestern countries who tend more towardsbread. Rice is seen as a symbol of development and prosperity, whereastuber vegetables likecassava are associated with poverty.[74]
Javanese cuisine varies by region. Eastern Java has a preference for hot and salty foods,[74] while the Central Javanese tend to prefer sweeter foods.
A famous food in Javanese cuisine isRujak Cingur,[75] marinatedcow lips and noses served with vegetable, shrimp prawn andpeanut sauce withchili.Rujak Cingur is considered a traditional food inSurabaya inEast Java.
Pecel, a type of peanut sauce with chili[77] is a common ingredient in Javanese cuisine. It is used in various types ofRujak andGado-gado. It can also be used as stand-alone sauce with rice, prawns, eggs and vegetables asNasi Pecel (Pecel rice).[78]
Tumpeng, is a rice served in the shape of aconical volcano,[79] usually with rice coloured yellow usingturmeric. It is an important part of many ceremonies in Java.Tumpeng is served at landmark events such as birthdays, moving house, or other ceremonies.[80] Traditionally,Tumpeng is served alongside fried chicken, boiled egg, vegetables, and goat meat on a round plate made frombamboo calledbesek.
A notable food in Java istempeh, ameat substitute made fromsoybean fermented withmould. It is a staple source of protein in Java and popular around the world as a meat substitute forvegetarians.
Javanese do not usually have family names or surnames, with only a single name. Javanese names may come from traditional Javanese languages, many of which are derived fromSanskrit. Names with the prefixSu-, which meansgood, are very popular. After the advent of Islam, many Javanese began to useArabic names, especially coast populations, where Islamic influences are stronger. Commoners usually only have one-word names, while nobilities use two-or-more-word names, but rarely a surname. Some people use apatronymic. Due to the influence of other cultures, many people started using names from other languages, mainlyEuropean languages.Christian Javanese usually useLatinbaptism names followed by a traditional Javanese name.
Today, most Javanese officially followSunni Islam as their religion,[82] first recorded instance of Islamic contact in Java is dated from 475 Hijri (1082 AD), as attested in the grave of Fatimah binti Maimun.[83]: 56 However Islamic development only became more intensive during the Majapahit period, when they traded or made tributary relations with various states like Perlak andSamudra Pasai in modern-dayAceh.[51] In the Troloyo/Tralaya cemetery ofTrowulan (the capital of Majapahit), there are several Muslim tombstones with dates from the 14th century (1368 AD, 1376 AD). The close proximity of the site with thekraton means there were Muslim people in close relation with the court.[84]
Traditionally, most Javanese people are farmers. Farming is especially common because of the fertile volcanic soil in Java. The most important agricultural commodity is rice. In 1997, it was estimated that Java produced 55% of Indonesia's total output of the crop.[89] Most farmers work in small-scale rice fields, with around 42% of farmers working and cultivating less than 0.5 hectares of land.[89] In region where soil is less fertile of where rainy season is short, other staple crops is cultivated, such ascassava.[90]
Javanese merchants and sailors were already in frequent voyage in the seas between India and China as early as 1st century CE.[91]: 31–35 [92]: 25
Champa was assaulted by Javanese orKunlunvessels in 774 and 787.[93][94][95] In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha-trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Phang-rang.[96][97][98] Several Champa coastal cities suffered naval raids and assault from Java. Java armadas was called asJavabala-sanghair-nāvāgataiḥ (fleets from Java) which are recorded in Champa epigraphs.[99][100]
The Javanese may have contacted Australia in 10th century AD, and migrated there, their settlement existing until early 1600s. According to Waharu IV inscription (931 AD) and Garaman inscription (1053 AD),[101][102] theMataram kingdom andAirlangga's eraKahuripan (1000–1049 AD) ofJava experienced a long prosperity so that it needed a lot of manpower, especially to bring crops, packings, and send them to ports. Black labor was imported fromJenggi (Zanzibar), Pujut (Australia), and Bondan (Papua).[103][104] According toNaerssen, they arrived in Java by trading (bought by merchants) or being taken prisoner during a war and then made slaves.[105] According to Chiaymasiouro, the king of Demak, in 1601 AD a subgroup of Javanese people already settled in a land calledLucaAntara, which is believed to be Australia.[106] But whenEredia's servant went toLucaAntara in 1610, the land had seemingly been abandoned.[107]
The 10th century Arab accountAjayeb al-Hind (Marvels of India) gives an account of invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak orWaqwaq,[108]: 110 probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of Mataram kingdom,[109]: 27 [110]: 39 in 945–946 CE. They arrived in the coast ofTanganyika andMozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, though eventually failed. The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China, such as ivory, tortoise shells, panther skins, andambergris, and also because they wanted black slaves fromBantu people (calledZeng orZenj by Arabs,Jenggi by Javanese) who were strong and make good slaves.[108]: 110 The existence of black Africans was recorded until the 15th century inOld Javanese inscriptions[111][112] and the Javanese were still recorded as exporting black slaves during the Ming dynasty era.[113]
TheMalagasy people have genetic links to various Maritime Southeast Asian groups, particularly from southern Borneo.[114] Parts ofthe Malagasy language are sourced from theMa'anyan language with loan words fromSanskrit, with all the local linguistic modifications via Javanese or Malay language.[115] As theMa'anyan andDayak people are not a sailor and were dry-rice cultivators while some Malagasy are wet rice farmers, it is likely that they are carried by the Javanese and Malay people in their trading fleets, as labor or slaves.[108]: 114–115
During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java.[110]: 233–234, 239–240 This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships, particularly thejong, for trading to faraway places.[110]: 56–60, 286–291 Early 16th century European accounts noted the places which the Javanese merchants visited, which includeMaluku Islands, Timor, Banda, Sumatra, Malacca, China,Tenasserim, Pegu (Bago),Bengal,Pulicat, Coromandel,Malabar, Cambay (Khambat), andAden. There were also those who went to the Maldives, Calicut (Kozhikode), Oman, Aden, and the Red Sea.[116]: 191–193 [117]: 199 Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia.[110]: 233–234, 239–240 It was also during Majapahit era that Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment.Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his bookItinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point ofTasmania.[118]: 248–251 WhenAfonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanesemaritime pilot, which already included part of theAmericas. Regarding the chart Albuquerque said:[119]: 64 [120]: 98–99
"...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, theRed Sea and theSea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gores, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where theChinese andGores come from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda, of nutmeg and mace, and the land of the King of Siam, and also the end of the land of the navigation of the Chinese, the direction it takes, and how they do not navigate farther."
— Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, 1 April 1512.
The Javanese people, like other Austronesian ethnicities, use a solid navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctiveastronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon.[121]: 10 In the Majapahit era,compasses andmagnets were used, andcartography (mapping science) was developed. In 1293 AD Raden Wijaya presented a map and census record to the Yuan Mongol invader, suggesting that mapmaking has been a formal part of governmental affair in Java.[122] The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines, rhumb lines, and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans, to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s.[118]: 249 [123]: lxxix [120][110]: 163–164, 166–168 [124]
European colonial presence diminished the range of the Javanese merchant-sailors. In 1645,Diogo do Couto noted that the Javanese had communicated with the east coast of Madagascar.[125] The decision ofAmangkurat I of theMataram Sultanate to destroy ships in coastal cities and close ports to prevent them from rebelling in the mid-17th century further reduced the Javanese people's ability in long-distance sailing.[126]: 79–80 In 1705 there is an agreement signed by VOC andPakubuwana I of Mataram, which forbade the Javanese to sail to the east of Lombok, to the north ofKalimantan, and to the west of Lampung. In the second half of the 18th century, most of the Javanese merchant-sailors were restricted to only short-range travel.[121]: 20–21 [127]: 116–117
The Javanese were known to produce large ships calledK'un-lun po (po of the K'un-lun people). These ships already plied the seas between India and China as early as 2nd century CE, carrying up to 1000 people alongside 250–1000 tons of cargo. The characteristics of this ship are that it is large (more than 50–60 m long), the hull is made of multiple plankings, has nooutrigger, mounted with many masts and sails, the sail is in the form of a tanja sail, and has a plank fastening technique in the form of stitching with plant fibers.[128][129][130]: 275 [131]: 262 [132]: 347
Javanese trading and slaving activities in Africa caused a strong influence on boatbuilding on Madagascar and the East African coast. This is indicated by the existence of outriggers andoculi (eye ornament) on African boats.[133][134]: 94
Another large ship built by the Javanese was theJong, first recorded in an Old Javanese inscription from the 9th century AD.[126]: 60 Although the characteristics may be similar, it has some differences from thepo that it was using wooden dowels for joining the planks and has double passenger-to-deadweight ratio. During the Majapahit era, a jong usually carried 600–700 men with 1200–1400 tons deadweight, and was about 69.26–72.55 mLOD and 76.18–79.81 mLOA. The largest ones, carried 1000 men with 2000 tons deadweight, was about 80.51 m LOD and 88.56 m LOA.[135] The jong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java: north coastal Java, especially aroundRembang–Demak (along theMuria strait) andCirebon; and the south coast of Borneo (Banjarmasin) and the adjacent islands.[136]: 33 Pegu, which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century, also produced jong, built by Javanese who resided there.[137]
Impressed by the Javanese's skill in shipbuilding,Afonso de Albuquerque hired 60 Javanese carpenters and shipbuilders to work in India for the Portuguese. They never arrived in India, as they mutinied and took the Portuguese ship they boarded to Pasai, where they were welcomed extraordinarily.[138] The Dutch also realized Javanese proficiency in shipbuilding, in the 18th century, shipbuilding yards inAmsterdam employed Javanese people as the foremen.[139] The shipbuilding in Java was hampered when the VOC gained a foothold in Java starting in the early 17th century. However, in the 18th century, the Javanese shipbuilding areas (particularlyRembang and Juwana) started building large European-styled vessels (bark andbrigantine type),[121]: 20 such ships may reach 400–600 tons burthen, with an average of 92lasts (165.6–184 metric tons).[140] In 1856,John Crawfurd noted that Javanese shipbuilding activity still existed on the north coast of Java, with the shipyards supervised by Europeans, but all of the workers were Javanese. The ships that were built in the 19th century had a maximum tonnage of 50 tons and were used for river transport.[109]: 95
Javanese weapons: Spears, anistinggar andsenapan, and a model of a cannon in its carriage.
Blacksmiths are traditionally valued. Some blacksmiths fast and meditate to reach perfection. Javanese blacksmiths create a range of tools and farming equipment, and also cultural items such as gamelan instruments andkris.[90] The art of kris-making provided the technical skills applied to gunmaking. Cannon and firearms required special expertise and may have been made by the same individuals. The blacksmith's spiritual power was said to be transferred to the guns.[141]: 384 Majapahit underMahapatih (prime minister)Gajah Mada (in office 1331–1364) utilized gunpowder technology obtained fromYuan dynasty for use in the naval fleet.[142]Pole gun (bedil tombak) was recorded as being used by Javanese people in 1413.[143][144]: 245
Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang orrentaka), long muskets,spingarde (arquebus),schioppi (hand cannon),Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. Every place are considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.[118]: 254 [116]: 198 [145] In 1513, theJavanese fleet led by Pati Unus, sailed to attackPortuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works iniron, exceeding what they have in India".[146]: 162 [147]: 23
Zhang Xie in Dong Xi Yang Kao (1618) mentioned that city of Palembang, which has been conquered by Javanese, produces the furious fiery oil (meng huo yu), which according to theHua I Kao is a kind of tree secretion (shu chin), and is also called mud oil (ni yu). Zhang Xie wrote:[148]: 88
It much resemble camphor, and can corrode human flesh. When ignited and thrown on water, its light and flame become all the more intense. The barbarians use it as a fire-weapon and produce great conflagrations in which sails, bulwarks, upperworks and oars all catch fire and cannot withstand it. Fishes and tortoises coming in contact with it cannot escape from being scorched.
Because there was no mention of projector pump, the weapon is probably breakable bottles with fuses.[148]: 88
Kris knives are important items, with many heirloom kris holding significant historical value. The design of the kris is to tear apart an opponent's abdomen, making the injury more severe.
Javanese people made several types of armor such askarambalangan,kawaca,siping-siping, andwaju rante. They also made steel helmets calledrukuh. Armor is probably only used by high-ranking soldiers and trained/salaried troops, with salariedstanding army numbering as many as 30,000 existing during the Singhasari and Majapahit era (1222 to 1527 CE), with the first mention being in the Chinese recordZhu Fan Zhi of 1225 CE. A part of the Javanese armies usually consisted of peasantlevies who fought bare-chested.[110]: 320–321 [150]: 75–80 [151]: 111–113 [152]: 467 [153]
Batik are worn by both men and women, with patterns varying to denote social stature. Batik are also used ceremonially, with certain designs used to bring good luck to a newborn infant or a newly wed couple and their families.[154][155] Some towns and villages have specialized in making batik, such as Pekalongan, Kauman, Kampung Taman and Laweyan.
The Javanese art of wood carving is traditionally applied to various cultural attributes such as statues, (wayang-)dolls, and masks. Woodcarving also prominent as house ornamentation and details. The elaborately carved Omah Kudus is a fine example of Javanese woodcarving mastery. The Central Java town ofJepara is famous as a center of Javanese woodcarving workshops, where artists and carpenters especially working on Javanteak wood.[156]
Javanese woodworkers making traditional masks during theDutch East Indies era
The carpenters' tools of the Javanese people
Javanese agricultural tools
A drawing of Javanese manufacturing tools, handicrafts, and musical instruments
Javanese musical instruments, many of which require the skills of blacksmith and carpenters
The Javanese were probably involved in the Austronesian migration toMadagascar in the first centuries C.E. While the culture of the migration is most closely related with theMa'anyan people of Borneo, a portion of theMalagasy language is derived from loanwords from theJavanese language.[157] It is possible that Ma'anyan people (or other indigenous people of Kalimantan closely related to the Ma'anyans) were brought as labourer and slaves by their Javanese masters in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD.[158][159][108]: 114–115
A Portuguese account described how the Javanese people already had advanced seafaring skills and had communicated with Madagascar in 1645:[125][160][126]: 57 [161]: 51
The Javanese are all men very experienced in the art of navigation, to the point that they claim to be the most ancient of all, although many others give this honor to the Chinese, and affirm that this art was handed on from them to the Javanese. But it is certain that they formerly navigated to theCape of Good Hope and were in communication with the east coast of the island of São Lourenço (San Laurenzo —Madagascar), where there are many brown and Javanese-like natives who say they are descended from them. —Diogo do Couto,Decada Quarta da Asia
Since the Hindu kingdom period, Javanesemerchants settled at many places in the Indonesian archipelago.[40]: 247 In the late 15th century, following the collapse of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim principalities on the northern coast of Java, many Hindu nobilities, artisans and courtiers migrated toBali,[48] where they would contribute to the refined culture of Bali. Others who refused to convert to Islam retreated toTengger mountain, retaining their Hindu religion and becoming theTenggerese people.
In the conflicts during the transitions of power between theDemak, thePajang and theMataram in the late 16th century, some Javanese migrated toPalembang in southernSumatra. There they established a sultanate and formed a mix ofMalay and Javanese culture.[32]Palembang language is a dialect ofMalay language with heavy influence of Javanese.
Inhabitants ofJave la Grande (Great Java island), from Nicholas Vallard's manuscript sea atlas (1547)
Declaraçam de Malaca e India Meridional com o Cathay by Manuel Godinho de Eredia (1613), described what he calledIndia Meridional (Meridional India — Southern/South India). In his book he relates about the voyage of Chiaymasiouro (or Chiay Masiuro), king ofDamuth (Demak) in Java, to a Southern land calledLucaAntara (orLucaantara, a peninsula in North Australia).[note 3][note 4] The book explained that in Meridional India already settled a subgroup of Javanese people. A brief description of this country is given in a letter written by Chiaymasiouro to the King ofPahang and in a certificate made by Pedro de Carvalhaes at Malacca on 4 October 1601.[162] InReport of Meridional India (1610) Eredia mentioned that the Javanese people ofLucaAntara in all of their customs and in figure resemble the Javanese ofSunda (west Java),[note 5] only a slight difference in the language, which he described as "much the same as between theCastillian and thePortuguese". The hair extends as far as the shoulders, the tonsure resembles the tonsure ofBalinese people, with a curiously curved contour.[107]
During the reign ofSultan Agung (1613–1645), some Javanese began to establish settlements in coastalWest Java aroundCirebon,Indramayu andKarawang. These Javanese settlements were originally commissioned by Sultan Agung as rice farming villages to support the Javanese troop logistics on his military campaign against Dutch Batavia.
The Javanese were also present inPeninsular Malaya since early times.[163] The Link between Java and Malacca was important duringspread of Islam in Indonesia, whenreligious missionaries were sent from Malacca to seaports on the northern coast of Java.[51] Large migrations to the Malay Peninsula occurred during the colonial period, mostly from Central Java toBritish Malaya. Migration also took place from 1880 to 1930 from other parts of Java with a secondary migration Javanese fromPonorogo,East Java andSumatra.[164] Those migrations were to seek a new life away from theDutch colonists who ruled Indonesia at that time. Today these people live throughout Peninsular Malaysia and are mainly concentrated in parts of inland, west and northwest coasts ofJohor, southwestPerak, west coast ofSelangor, plus cities such asKuala Lumpur.[164]
Today, the Malaysian government classifies the descendants of these Javanese residing in Malaysia under the "Malay" label along with other native Indonesian ethnic groups which allows for socioeconomical privileges allocated for the so-calledbumiputera, this assimilation is factored by integration under similar socioreligious infrastructures like mosques and intermarriage with the localMalay ethnic population in the Peninsular.[164] Many immigrants of the colonial period retain their Javanese identity, and theJavanese language is still spoken, although the younger generation in urban centers mostly has shifted toMalay.[165]
Javanese merchants were also present in theMaluku Islands as part of the spice trade. Following the Islamisation of Java, they spread Islam in the islands, withTernate being a Muslim sultanate circa 1484.[167] Javanese merchants also converted coastal cities inBorneo to Islam.[168] The Javanese thus played an important part in transmitting Islam from the western part to the eastern part ofthe Archipelago with trade based from northern coast of Java.
New migration patterns emerged during colonial periods. During the rise ofVOC power starting in the 17th century, many Javanese were exiled, enslaved or hired as mercenaries for theDutch colonies ofCeylon inSouth Asia and theCape colony inSouth Africa. These included princes and nobility who lost their dispute with the company and were exiled along with their retinues. These, along with exiles from other ethnicities likeBugis andMalay became theSri Lankan Malay[34] andCape Malay[35] ethnic groups respectively. Other political prisoners were transported to closer places. PrinceDiponegoro and his followers were transported toNorth Sulawesi, following his defeat inJava War in the early 19th century. Their descendants are well known asJaton (abbreviation of "Jawa Tondano"/Tondano Javanese).
Major migrations started during the Dutch colonial period undertransmigration programs. The Dutch needed many labourers for their plantations and moved many Javanese under the program as contract workers, mostly to other parts of the colony in Sumatra. They also sent Javanese workers toSuriname in South America.[169] As of 2019, approximately 13.7% of the Suriname population is of Javanese ancestry.[11] Outside of the Dutch colonies, Javanese workers were also sent to plantations administered by the Dutch colonial government inNew Caledonia, a French territory.[169]
The transmigration program that was created by the Dutch continued following independence. A significant Javanese population can be found in the Jabodetabek (Greater Jakarta) area,Lampung,South Sumatra andJambi provinces. Severalpaguyuban (traditional community organisation) were formed by these Javanese immigrants, such as "Pujakesuma" (abbreviation of Indonesian:Putra Jawa Kelahiran Sumatera or Sumatra-born Javanese).
^It is very difficult to find exact figures because Malaysian census data does not consider the Javanese as one ethnicity but part of the "Malays".[3] According to the 1950Malayan census, it was estimated that more than 189,000 "Malays" were born to Javanese parents.[4] This figure is very significant considering the number of people counted under this group at that time was just under 3 million. Javanese descendants form large communities inJohor,Selangor,Perak and other states in Malaysia.[5][6]
^Lucaantara: i.e.Nusaantara, the southern land which Eredia claims to have discovered The nameNusaantara occurs in thePararaton, a Javanese historical work of about the 16th century. Blagden adopts Brandes' explanation that the expressionNusantara refers to the Archipelago in general. (JRASSB . No. 53. (1909). p. 144). Crawfurd says that the expressionNusaantara denoted Madura. Janssen thinks that Eredia'sLucaantara was Australia or one of the islands off the north Australian coast: Hamy considers it to be Sumba. (Janssen.Malaca, Vlnde Meridionale ei le Cathay. (1882). pp, xi, xii). Major thinks it was Madura.
^According to Ferrand, the wordnusa is only used in Java, Madura, and Madagascar (nusi); elsewhere, island is generally represented by the namepulaw,pulo, or some dialectical variant thereof. (JournalAsiatique. Tome XX. (1920). p. 190).Nusa may be connected, through Sanskrit, with the Greek νῆσος (nesos). It would appear that the human tongue has a tendency to corrupt an "N" into an "L" thus "Nakhon" has become "Lakhon" (Ligor) and the Malay wordnuri has become lory.Linschoten's map of the Eastern Seas contains the formsLusa (Luca) andNusa.
^Likely what he meant here might be theSundanese or theCirebonese people, an Austronesian ethnic group with mixed culture of Javanese andSundanese (heavier influence from Javanese).
^Silvey, Rachel (2005), "Transnational Islam: Indonesian Migrant Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia", in Falah, Ghazi-Walid; Nagel, Caroline (eds.),Geographies of Muslim Women: Gender, Religion, and Space, Guilford Press, pp. 127–146,ISBN1-57230-134-1
^Milner, Anthony (2011). "Chapter 7, Multiple forms of 'Malayness'".The Malays. John Wiley & Sons. p. 197.ISBN978-0-7748-1333-4. Retrieved17 February 2013.
^ab"Suriname".The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 18 December 2019. Retrieved23 December 2019.
^abAris Ananta, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M Sairi Hasbullah, Nur Budi Handayani, Agus Pramono.Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Singapore: ISEAS: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2015. p. 270 (based on 2010 census data).
^Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1.ISBN978-93-83064-41-0.
^Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella, ed. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans. Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^Beatty, Andrew (1996). "Adam and Eve and Vishnu: Syncretism in the Javanese Slametan".The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute.2 (2):271–288.doi:10.2307/3034096.JSTOR3034096.
^Smith-Hefner, Nancy J. (1989). "A Social History of Language Change in Highland East Java".The Journal of Asian Studies.48 (2):260–263.doi:10.2307/2057377.JSTOR2057377.S2CID163495498.
^Soeseno, Ki Nardjoko (2014).Falsafah Jawa Soeharto & Jokowi. Araska.ISBN978-602-7733-82-4.
^McDonald, Hamish (1980).Suharto's Indonesia. Melbourne: Fontana. pp. 9–10.ISBN0-00-635721-0.
^Prambanan and Sewu Exhibition: Safeguarding a Common Heritage of Humanity, 15–24 January 2010, Bentara Budaya Jakarta 2010
^Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia (6 October 2009)."Trowulan – Former Capital City of Majapahit Kingdom". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Convention.
^Aris Ananta, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M Sairi Hasbullah, Nur Budi Handayani, Agus Pramono.Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Singapore: ISEAS: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2015. p. 273.
^Sunyoto, Agus (2017).Atlas Walisongo. South Tangerang: Pustaka IIMaN.
^Manguin, Pierre-Yves; Nicholl, Robert (1985). "The Introduction of Islam into Champa".Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.58 (1): 1–28 [6].
^Dick-Read, Robert (2005).The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times. Thurlton.
^Flecker, Michael (August 2015). "Early Voyaging in the South China Sea: Implications on Territorial Claims".Nalanda-Sriwijaya Center Working Paper Series.19:1–53.
^Ronald Duane Renard; Mahāwitthayālai Phāyap (1986).Anuson Walter Vella. Walter F. Vella Fund, Payap University. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Center for Asian and Pacific Studies. p. 121.
^abcdKumar, Ann (2012). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.),Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122.
^abLombard, Denys (2005).Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990).Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales.
^Manguin, Pierre-Yves (1993). 'The Vanishing Jong: Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War (Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries)', in Anthony Reid (ed.),Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press), 197–213.
^abcLiebner, Horst H. (2005),"Perahu-Perahu Tradisional Nusantara: Suatu Tinjauan Perkapalan dan Pelayaran", in Edi, Sedyawati (ed.),Eksplorasi Sumberdaya Budaya Maritim, Jakarta: Pusat Riset Wilayah Laut dan Sumber Daya Nonhayati, Badan Riset Kelautan dan Perikanan; Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Budaya, Universitas Indonesia, pp. 53–124
^Suarez, Thomas (2012).Early Mapping of Southeast Asia: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who First Mapped the Regions Between China and India. Tuttle Publishing. p. 53[ISBN missing]
^Manguin, Pierre-Yves (1993). "Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks".Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient:253–280.
^Christie, Anthony (1957). "An Obscure Passage from the "Periplus: ΚΟΛΑΝΔΙΟϕΩΝΤΑ ΤΑ ΜΕΓΙΣΤΑ"".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.19:345–353.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00133105.S2CID162840685.
^Unger, Richard W. (2013). "Chapter Five: The Technology and Teaching of Shipbuilding 1300-1800".Technology, Skills and the Pre-Modern Economy in the East and the West. BRILL. p. 202.ISBN978-90-04-25157-1.
^Lee, Kam Hing (1986): 'The Shipping Lists of Dutch Melaka: A Source for the Study of Coastal Trade and Shipping in the Malay Peninsula During the 17th and 18th Centuries', in Mohd. Y. Hashim (ed.),Ships and Sunken Treasure (Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Muzium Malaysia), 53–76.
^Tarling, Nicholas (1992).The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 1, From Early Times to C.1800. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-35505-6.
^Pramono, Djoko (2005).Budaya Bahari. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. p. 57.ISBN978-979-22-1376-8.
^Mayers (1876). "Chinese explorations of the Indian Ocean during the fifteenth century".The China Review.IV: p. 178.
^abNeedham, Joseph (1986).Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^Jákl, Jiří (2014).Literary Representations of War and Warfare in Old Javanese Kakawin Poetry (PhD thesis). The University of Queensland.
^Oktorino, Nino (2020).Hikayat Majapahit – Kebangkitan dan Keruntuhan Kerajaan Terbesar di Nusantara. Jakarta: Elex Media Komputindo.ISBN978-623-00-1741-4.
^Stephenson, Nina (1993). "The Past, Present, and Future of Javanese Batik: A Bibliographic Essay".Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America.12 (3):107–113.doi:10.1086/adx.12.3.27948560.JSTOR27948560.S2CID163835838.
^Hornell, James (December 1934). "Indonesian Influence on East African Culture".The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.64: 305–332 [311].doi:10.2307/2843812.JSTOR2843812.
^abcdLinda Sunarti; Teuku Reza Fadeli (2018). "Tracing Javanese Identity And Culture In Malaysia Asimilation And Adaptation Of Javanese In Malaysia".Paramita: Historical Studies Journal.28 (1):52–4.doi:10.15294/paramita.v28i1.10923 (inactive 1 July 2025).ISSN0854-0039.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^Miyazaki, Koji (2000). "Javanese-Malay: Between Adaptation and Alienation".Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia.15 (1):76–99.JSTOR41057030. p. 83: "Generally speaking, however, as one might expect, younger Javanese-Malays can hardly understand Javanese and are Malay monolingual".
^LePoer, Barbara Leitch (1991).Singapore, a country study. Federal Research Division,Library of Congress. p. 83.ISBN978-0-16-034264-6. Retrieved17 February 2013.Singapore Malay community leaders estimated that some 50 to 60 percent of the community traced their origins to Java and an additional 15 to 20 percent to Bawean Island, in the Java Sea north of the city ofSurabaya.
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