Java[a] is one of theGreater Sunda Islands in the South East Asian country ofIndonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and theJava Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (includingMadura) in mid 2024, projected to have risen to 158 million by mid-2025, Java is the world'smost populous island, home to approximately 56% of theIndonesian population while constituting only 7% of itsland area.[2] Indonesia's capital city,Jakarta, is on Java's northwestern coast.
Java was formed by volcanic eruptions due to geologicsubduction of theAustralian Plate under theSunda Plate. It is the13th largest island in the world and thefifth largest in Indonesia by landmass, at about 132,598.77 square kilometres (51,196.67 sq mi) (includingMadura's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi)). A chain of volcanic mountains is the east–west spine of the island.
Four main languages are spoken on the island:Javanese,Sundanese,Madurese, andBetawi.Javanese andSundanese are the most spoken.[3] The ethnic groups native to the island are theJavanese in the central and eastern parts andSundanese in the western parts. TheMadurese in theEastern salient of Java are migrants fromMadura Island (which is part ofEast Java Province in administrative terms), while theBetawi in the capital city of Jakarta are hybrids from variousethnic groups in Indonesia. Most residents are bilingual, speakingIndonesian (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java areMuslim, Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.[4]
The origin of the name "Java" can be traced from theSanskrit chronicle which mentions the existence of an island called yavadvip(a) (dvipa means "island", andyava means "barley" or "grain").[5][6] The "grain" may be millet (Setaria italica) or rice, both of which have been widely found on this island, before the entry of Indian influence.[7] It is possible that the island had many previous names, including the possibility of it originating from the wordjaú which means "far away". Yavadvipa is mentioned in one of the Indian epic,Ramayana. According to the epic,Sugriva, the commander of the wanara (ape man) fromSri Rama's army, sent his envoy to Yavadvip ("Java Island") to look for the Hindu goddessSita.[8]
Another possibility is that the word "Java" comes fromProto-Austronesian,Awa orYawa (Similar to the wordsAwa'i (Awaiki) orHawa'i (Hawaiki) used inPolynesia, especially Hawaii) which means "home".[9]
An island calledIabadiu orJabadiu is mentioned inPtolemy's work calledGeographia which was made around 150 AD during the era of theRoman Empire.Iabadiu is said to mean "island of barley", also rich in gold, and has a silver city called Argyra at its western end. This name mentioned Java, which most likely origins from the Sanskrit term Java-dvipa (Yawadvipa).[10]
Chinese records from theSongshu and theLiangshu referred to Java as She-po (5th century AD), He-ling (640–818 AD), then called it She-po again until theYuan Dynasty (1271–1368), where they began to call Zhao-Wa.[11] In the bookYingyai Shenglan, written by the Chinese Ming explorerMa Huan, the Chinese call Java as Chao-Wa, and it was once called the She-pó (She-bó).[12] WhenGiovanni de' Marignolli returned from China toAvignon, he stopped at the kingdom of Saba, which he said had many elephants and was led by a queen; this name Saba might be his interpretation of She-bó.[13]
The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. The island could possibly have been named after thejáwa-wut plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names.[14] There are other possible sources: the wordjaú and its variations mean "beyond" or "distant".[15] And, inSanskrityava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous.[15] "Yavadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic, theRamayana.Sugriva, the chief ofRama's army, dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the island of Java, in search ofSita.[16] It was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island). Java is mentioned in the ancientTamil textManimekalai byChithalai Chathanar which states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.[17][18][19] Another source states that the word "Java" is derived from aProto-Austronesian root word, meaning "home".[20] The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned inPtolemy'sGeographia composed around 150 CE in theRoman Empire.Iabadiu is said to mean "barley island", to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicates Java[10] and seems to be derived from the Sanskrit name Java-dvipa (Yavadvipa).
The annual news of Songshu and Liangshu (5th century CE) referred to Java as 闍婆 (She-pó orShe-bó), He-ling (640–818), then called it She-po again until theYuan dynasty (1271–1368), where they began mentioning 爪哇 (Zhao-Wa orChao-Wa).[21] According toMa Huan's book (theYingya Shenlan), the Chinese called Java Chao-Wa, and the island was called She-po in the past.[22] Sulaiman al-Tajir al-Sirafi mentioned two notable islands which separatedArabia and China: One is the 800farsakh long Al-Rami, which is identified as Sumatra, and the other isZabaj (Arabic: الزابج,Indonesian: Sabak), 400 farsakh in length, identified as Java.[23]: 30–31 WhenJohn of Marignolli returned from China toAvignon, he stayed at theKingdom of Saba for a few months, which he said had many elephants and was led by aqueen; Saba may be his interpretation of She-bó.[24]: xii, 192–194 Afanasij Nikitin, a merchant fromTver (in Russia), traveled to India in 1466 and described the land of java, which he called шабайте (shabait/šabajte).[25][26]
Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains 38 mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes. There are 112 volcanoes in all, 35 of which are active. The highest volcano in Java is MountSemeru, 3,676 metres (12,060 ft). The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia isMount Merapi, 2,930 metres (9,610 ft).[29] In total, Java has more than 150 mountains.[30]
Java's mountains and highlands split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable forwet-rice cultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world.[31] Java was the first place whereIndonesian coffee was grown, starting in 1699. Today,coffea arabica is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.[32]
The area of Java is about 132,598.77 square kilometres (51,196.67 sq mi) (including Madura's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi) and minor offshore islands).[31] It is about 1,000 km (620 mi) long and up to 210 km (130 mi) wide. The island's longest river is the 600 km longSolo River.[33] The river rises from its source in central Java at theLawu volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the Java Sea near the city ofSurabaya. Other major rivers areBrantas,Citarum,Cimanuk andSerayu.[citation needed]
The average temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) to 29 °C (84 °F); average humidity is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging 34 °C (93 °F) during the day in thedry season. The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler.[34] Thewet season begins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.[35]
West Java is wetter thanEast Java, and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. TheParahyangan highlands of West Java receive over 4,000 millimetres (160 in) annually, while the north coast of East Java receives 900 millimetres (35 in) annually.[citation needed]
Java is an island with a large amount of biodiversity. Thenatural environment of Java istropical rainforest, with ecosystems ranging from coastalmangrove forest on the north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lyingtropical forest to high altitude rainforest on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a drysavanna environment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions.[citation needed]
MaleJavan rhino shot in 1934 in West Java. Today only small numbers of Javan rhino survive inUjung Kulon; it is the world's rarest rhino.
Since ancient times, people have opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and createdrice paddy and terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to haveJavan tigers andJavan elephants, but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect the remnants of its fragile wildlife, such asUjung Kulon,Mount Halimun-Salak,Gede Pangrango,Baluran,Meru Betiri,Bromo Tengger Semeru andAlas Purwo.
H. erectus arrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be the first African exodus.[42] There is evidence that the Java population ofH. erectus lived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled asavannah, but was likely regularly inundated ("hydromorphic savanna"). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass (Poaceae),ferns,Ficus, andIndigofera, which are typical of lowland rainforest.[43]
H. e. soloensis was the last population of a long occupation history of the island of Java byH. erectus, beginning 1.51 to 0.93 million years ago at the Sangiran site, continuing 540 to 430 thousand years ago at the Trinil site, and finally 117 to 108 thousand years ago at Ngandong.[44] If the date is correct for Solo Man, then they would represent a terminal population ofH. erectus which sheltered in the last open-habitat refuges of East Asia before the rainforest takeover. Before the immigration of modern humans, Late Pleistocene Southeast Asia was also home toH. floresiensis endemic to the island ofFlores, Indonesia, andH. luzonensis endemic to the island ofLuzon, the Philippines. Genetic analysis of present-day Southeast Asian populations indicates the widespread dispersal of theDenisovans (a species currently recognisable only by their genetic signature) across Southeast Asia, whereupon they interbred with immigrating modern humans 45.7 and 29.8 thousand years ago.[citation needed] A 2021 genomic study indicates that, aside from the Denisovans, modern humans never interbred with any of these endemic human species, unless the offspring wereunviable or the hybrid lineages have since died out.[citation needed]
Judging by the sheer number of specimens deposited at Ngandong at the same time, there may have been a sizeable population ofH. e soloensis before the volcanic eruption which resulted in their interment, but population is difficult to approximate with certainty. This site is quite far from the north coast of Java Island, and it is not always easy to determine the position of the coastline in prehistoric times because of significant geographical changes.[45]
The southern coastline and estuary of the Bengawan Solo River at that time may have been different from what it is today, due to geological factors such as sedimentation, erosion, and changes in sea level over time. Currently, the estuary of the Bengawan Solo is in the Java Sea, but in prehistoric times, the river flow and estuary location may have changed. Geological and paleogeographic studies are often used to understand these changes.
Mount Sumbing surrounded by rice fields. Java's volcanic topography and rich agricultural lands are the fundamental factors in its history.
The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.[46] Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only theBrantas river and Solo river could provide long-distance communication and this way their valleys supported the centers of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges, and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Consequently, communication between Java's population was difficult.[31]
The emergence of civilization on the island of Java is often associated with the arrival ofAji Saka in 78 AD. Although Aji Saka is said to be the bearer of civilization on Java, the story received several objections and rebuttals from other historical sources. Valmiki'sRamayana, made around 500 BC, records that Java already had a governmental organization long before the story:
"Yawadwipa is decorated with seven kingdoms, gold and silver islands, rich in gold mines, and there is Cicira (cold) Mountain that touches the sky with its peak."[47]: 6
The Greek geographerPtolemy called the island Iabadius or Sabadius (Ancient Greek:Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου).[48][49] Ptolemy said that the name meant the "Island of Barley" and produced a lot of grain and gold, adding that its metropolis was Argyre (Ἀργυρῆ)[50] meaning silver in Greek.[51]
According to Chinese recordMíng Shǐ, the Javanese kingdom was founded in 65 BC, or 143 years before the story of Aji Saka began.[52]: 39
The story of Aji Saka is a Neo Javanese story. This story has not yet been found to be relevant in the Old Javanese text. This story tells of events in the Medang Kamulan kingdom in Java in the past. At that time, the king of Medang Kamulan Prabu Dewata Cengkar was replaced by Aji Saka. This story is considered as an allegory of the entry of Indians into Java. Referring to theLiang dynasty information, the Javanese kingdom was divided into two: the pre-Hinduism kingdom and the post-Hindu kingdom, which began in 78 AD.[23]: 5 and 7
TheTaruma kingdom of western Java existed from the 5th to the 7th centuries,[53]: 83 [54]: 19 while theHeling kingdom sent embassies to China starting in 640.[53]: 53, 79 However, the first major principality was theMataram Kingdom that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu godShiva, and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on theDieng Plateau. Around the 8th century, theSailendra dynasty rose inKedu Plain and become the patron ofMahayanaBuddhism. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th centuryBorobudur andPrambanan in central Java.[citation needed]
Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms ofKediri,Singhasari andMajapahit were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established byWijaya,[53]: 201 and by the end of the reign ofHayam Wuruk (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister,Gajah Mada, led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.[53]: 234 Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and thecoming of Islam to Indonesia, Majapahit went into decline.[53]: 241
Islam became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms ofDemak,Cirebon, andBanten were ascendant. TheMataram Sultanate became the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century.
Java’s Islamic tradition is known for its tolerance and harmony among faiths. Local religious organizations actively promote peace and inclusivity, reflecting broader values of coexistence in Indonesian society.[55]
"The Champion" (Sang Agul-agul). Sketch of a Javanese soldier leader by Swiss painter J. Schiess (1799–1844), from J.J.X. Pfyffer's 1829 "Sketches from Java," Plate VI. Photo: Leiden Univ. Library. Sources and related content
Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 witha treaty between the Sunda kingdom and thePortuguese in Malacca. After its failure, thePortuguese presence was confined to Malacca and to the eastern islands.In 1596, a four-ship expedition led byCornelis de Houtman was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.[56] By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through theDutch East India Company in Indonesia. Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.
Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice-producing islands likeBanda, rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.[57]
During theNapoleonic wars in Europe, the Netherlands fell to France, as did its colony in theEast Indies. During the short-livedDaendels administration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of theGreat Post Road was commenced in 1808. The road, spanning fromAnyer in Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion.[58] In 1811, Java wascaptured by the British, becoming a possession of theBritish Empire, and SirStamford Raffles was appointed as the island's governor. In 1816, under the governorship ofJohn Fendall, Java was returned to the Dutch as per the terms of theTreaty of Paris.[59][60]
In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java.[61] In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such ascassava and maize that could sustain populations that could not afford rice.[62] Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under theCultivation System to which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families’ ability to pay tax and buy goods.[63]Cholera claimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820.[64]
Japanese prepare to discuss surrender terms with British-allied forces in Java, 1945.
The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from the 1840s through to theJapanese occupation in the 1940s.[65] However, other sources claimed the Dutch's Cultivation system is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly inCirebon and thenCentral Java, as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice.
(1) including the neighbouring small archipelagos of theKangean Islands (648.55 km2), theSapudi Islands (167.41 km2),Talango Island (50.278 km2),Masalembu (40.85 km2), theGiligenteng Islands (30.32 km2) - all the foregoing withinSumenep Regency. (2) Other offshore islands are included in this figure, but are comparatively very small in population and area; they includeNusa Barong (84.73 km2),Bawean (197.42 km2),Karimunjawa (78 km2),Nusa Kambangan (121 km2),Panaitan (170 km2), and theThousand Islands (8.7 km2) – with a combined population of roughly 150,000 (of whom 85,320 are on Bawean, 28,809 are on the Thousand Islands, 16,200 on Nusa Barong and 10,800 on Karimunjawa).
(3) Land area of provinces updated in mid 2024 regency/city annual statistics.
Refers to the administrative region (including Madura). Source:[70]
Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during the Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta,Basuki Tjahaja Purnama. Java houses the majority of Indonesia's urban population. Currently, 65% of the island is urbanized. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average.[71] The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities.[72] Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving the island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surroundingJakarta andBandung, which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas.[citation needed]
Population density of Java and Madura by subdistrict as of 2022, with major urban areas shown
Java is themost populous major island in the world and is home to 55% of Indonesia's population, with a combined population of 156.9 million according to the official estimates as at mid 2024 (including Madura's 4.16 million).[73] At nearly 1,183.5 people per km2 in 2024, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on a par with Bangladesh. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.[citation needed]
The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2020 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significantvolcanic eruptions during the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese,[74] while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well.
The western third of the island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of roughly 1,563 per square kilometre and accounts for most of the population growth of Java.[73] It is home to three metropolitan areas,Greater Jakarta (with outlying areas of GreaterSerang and GreaterSukabumi),Greater Bandung, and GreaterCirebon.[citation needed]
From the 1970s to the fall of theSuharto regime in 1998, the Indonesian government rantransmigration programs aimed at resettling the population of Java on other less populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results, sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrivedsettlers. Nevertheless, it has caused Java's share of the nation's population to progressively decline.
Jakarta and its outskirts, being the dominant metropolis, is also home to people from all over the nation. East Java is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty.
Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—theJavanese andSundanese. A third group is theMadurese, who inhabit the island ofMadura off the northeast coast of Java and have immigrated toEast Java in large numbers since the 18th century.[75] The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 38% and 10% respectively.[75] The fourth group is theBetawi people who speak a dialect ofMalay. They are the descendants of the people living aroundBatavia from around the 17th century. Betawis arecreole people, mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such asMalay,Sundanese,Javanese,Balinese,Minang,Bugis,Makassar,Ambonese, mixed with foreign ethnic groups such asPortuguese,Dutch,Arab, Chinese and Indian brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surroundingSundanese andJavanese.[citation needed]
Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal eastern Java.[75]
Thekejawen of Javanese culture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy is based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.[75] The territory fromBanyumas in the west through toBlitar in the east encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.[75]
In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named theBanyumasan region, a cultural mingling occurred, bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create theBanyumasan culture.[76] In the central Javanese court cities ofYogyakarta andSurakarta, contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java includegamelan music andwayang puppet shows.[77]
Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,[78] and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These includeKen Arok andKen Dedes, the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations ofRamayana andMahabharata.Pramoedya Ananta Toer is a famous contemporary Indonesian author who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.
Hinduism was the main religion in Java before the arrival of Islam.[82]Indian influences came first withShaivism andBuddhism penetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.[83] Oneconduit for this were theascetics, calledresi, who taught mystical practices. Aresi lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts,Brahmin clerics andpudjangga (sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linkedHindu cosmology to their political needs.[83] SmallHindu enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a largeHindu population along the eastern coast nearestBali, especially around the town ofBanyuwangi.[citation needed]
The coming ofIslam, strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. More than 98 percent of theMuslims in Java areSunnis with very minority beingShia andAhmadis (respectively 1% and 0.2%), on a broad continuum betweenabangan (more syncretic) andsantri (more orthodox). Muslim scholars (Kyai) became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formalpriesthood, but theDutch colonial government established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanesepesantren (Islamic schools), theKyai perpetuated the tradition of theresi. Students around him provided his needs, evenpeasants around the school.[83]
Pre-Islamic Javanese traditions have encouraged Islam in a mystical direction. There emerged in Java a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving aroundkyais, possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamiclore,belief and practice.[83] The kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of thesupernatural. However, this very looseneess of kyai leadership structure has promotedschism. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taughtmysticism and those who sought to reform Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, there is a division betweensantri, who believe that they are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, withabangan, who have mixed pre-Islamicanimistic and Hindu-Indian concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief.[83]
There are alsoChristian communities, mostly in the larger cities, primarily amongChinese Indonesian and minorityJavanese even some rural areas of south-central Java are stronglyRoman Catholic.Buddhist communities also exist in the major cities, primarily among theChinese Indonesian. The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions.
A wider effect of this division is the number of sects. In the middle of 1956, the Department of Religious Affairs inYogyakarta reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 35 were inCentral Java, 22 inWest Java and six inEast Java.[83] These includeKejawen,Sumarah,Subud, etc. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.[84]Sunda Wiwitan is a traditionalSundanese religion, its adherents still exist in several villages.[85]
Initially the economy of Java relied heavily on rice agriculture. Ancient kingdoms such as theKingdoms of Sunda,Mataram, andMajapahit were dependent on rice yields and tax. Java was famous for rice surpluses and rice export since ancient times, and rice agriculture contributed to the population growth of the island. Trade with other parts of Asia such as ancient India and China flourished as early as the 4th century, as evidenced by Chinese ceramics found on the island dated to that period. Java also took part in the global trade ofMaluku spice from ancient times in the Majapahit era, until well into theDutch East India Company (VOC) era.[86]
The VOC set their foothold onBatavia in the 17th century and was succeeded by theDutch East Indies in the 19th century. During these colonial times, the Dutch introduced the cultivation of commercial plants in Java, such assugarcane, rubber, coffee, tea, andquinine. In the 19th and early 20th century, Javanese coffee gained global popularity. Thus, the name "Java" today has become a synonym for coffee.[87][88][89][90]
Whoosh high-speed train passing throughBekasi city
Java has been Indonesia's most developed island since the Dutch East Indies era and continues to be so today in the modern Republic of Indonesia. The road transportation networks that have existed since ancient times were connected and perfected with the construction ofJava Great Post Road byDaendels in the early 19th century. It became the backbone of Java's road infrastructure and laid the base ofJava North Coast Road (Indonesian:Jalan Pantura, abbreviation from "Pantai Utara"). The need to transport commercial produces such as coffee from plantations in the interior of the island to the harbour on the coast spurred the construction of railway networks in Java. Today, industry, business, trade and services flourished in major cities of Java, such asJakarta,Surabaya,Semarang, andBandung; while some traditional Sultanate cities such asYogyakarta,Surakarta, andCirebon preserved its royal legacy and has become the centre of art, culture and tourism. Industrial estates are also growing in towns on northern coast of Java, especially aroundCilegon,Tangerang,Bekasi,Karawang,Gresik andSidoarjo. Thetoll road highway networks was built and expanded since the New Order until the present day, connecting major urban centres and surrounding areas, such as in and aroundJakarta andBandung; also the ones inCirebon,Semarang andSurabaya. In addition to these motorways, Java has 16 national highways.
Java transport network
Based on the statistical data by the year of 2021 released byStatistics Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik), Java alone contributes around 60% of Indonesia's GDP or equivalent to US$686 billion (int$2.0 trillion, PPP).[91]
^Hindu culture in ancient India by Sekharipuram Vaidyanatha Viswanatha, p. 177.
^Tamil Literature by M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, p. 46.
^The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago by V. Kanakasabhai, p. 11.
^Hatley, R., Schiller, J., Lucas, A., Martin-Schiller, B., (1984). "Mapping cultural regions of Java" in: Other Javas away from the kraton. pp. 1–32.
^Lombard, Denys (2005).Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990).Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. p. 12.
^Mills, J.V.G. (1970).Ying-yai Sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Ocean Shores [1433]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 86.
^"Java". geography.name. Archived fromthe original on 27 June 2024. Retrieved27 June 2024.
^ab"Java Island". WorldAtlas.com. 24 August 2021. Retrieved27 June 2024.
^Pravitasari, Andrea Emma (24 September 2015). "Study on Impact of Urbanization and Rapid Urban Expansion in Java and Jabodetabek Megacity, Indonesia".Geography, Environmental Science: 18.doi:10.14989/doctor.k19347.S2CID131526829.
^Nguyen, T. T. T., and S. S. De Silva (2006).Freshwater finfish biodiversity and conservation: an asian perspective. Biodiversity & Conservation 15(11): 3543–3568.
^Pope, G. G. (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology".Annual Review of Anthropology.17:43–77.doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355.cited inWhitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R. E.; Suraya A. A. (1996).The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312.;Pope, G. (15 August 1983)."Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.80 (16): 4,988–4992.Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4988P.doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988.PMC384173.PMID6410399.cited inWhitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R. E.; Suraya A. A. (1996).The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309.;de Vos, J. P.; P. Y. Sondaar (9 December 1994)."Dating hominid sites in Indonesia"(PDF).Science Magazine.266 (16): 4,988–4992.Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1726D.doi:10.1126/science.7992059.cited inWhitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E.; Suraya A. A. (1996).The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309.
^Zaim, Yahdi; Ciochon, Russell L.; Polanski, Joshua M.; Grine, Frederick E.; Bettis, E. Arthur; Rizal, Yan; Franciscus, Robert G.; Larick, Roy R.; Heizler, Matthew; Aswan, null; Eaves, K. Lindsay; Marsh, Hannah E. (2011). "New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia)".Journal of Human Evolution.61 (4):363–376.Bibcode:2011JHumE..61..363Z.doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.04.009.ISSN1095-8606.PMID21783226.
^Sastropajitno, Warsito (1958).Rekonstruksi Sedjarah Indonesia. Zaman Hindu, Yavadvipa, Srivijaya, Sailendra. Yogyakarta: PT. Pertjetakan Republik Indonesia.
^abcdeCoedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^The dating of the Taruma kingdom is based on the palaeography of its inscriptions, which scholars agree date to the second half of the 5th century or slightly later.de Casparis, J.G. (1975).Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to c. A.D.1500. E.J. Brill.
^Ekspedisi Anjer-Panaroekan, Laporan Jurnalistik Kompas. Pnerbit Buku Kompas, PT Kompas Media Nusantara, Jakarta Indonesia. November 2008. pp. 1–2.ISBN978-979-709-391-4.
_(2022).svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
