Japanese philosophy has historically been a fusion of both indigenousShinto and continental Asian religions, such asBuddhism,Taoism andConfucianism. Japanese philosophy has been heavily influenced by bothChinese philosophy andIndian philosophy, as withMitogaku andZen. Modern Japanese philosophy is in addition influenced byWestern philosophy.
Beforefeudalism was firmly established inJapan,Buddhism occupied the mainstream of Japanese thought. The Buddhist culture introduced politically byPrince Shōtoku was completed as the "making a country safe" thought in theNara period. When theHeian period (794–1185) began, in substitution for the "making a country safe" thought, a form of esoteric Buddhism collectively known asmikkyō became widespread. However, in the late noble era when pessimism was popular due to the "belief that Buddhism will decline during thelatter days of this world", thePure Land movements spread out encouraging anticipation of a "future life" as a means to cope with desperation over "life in this world". During theKamakura period (1185–1333) when government dominated by thesamurai class began, a “new” Buddhism for the newly-risenclass (samurai) appears.
In ancient Japan, the arrival ofBuddhism closely relates to the national construction and the national centralization ofpower.Prince Shōtoku and the Soga family fought and overcame the Mononobe family, who had handled the ancient Japanesereligion, and elaborated a plan for nationalgovernance based on the unification of thelegal codes system and Buddhism. While cooperating with the Soga family, Prince Shōtoku, who was the regent of theEmpress Suiko, showed a deep understanding in "foreign" Buddhism,[1] and planned to stabilize nationalpolitics through the use of Buddhism. The thought that national peace and security came through the power of Buddhism is called the "making a country safe" thought. In theNara period, in particular the times ofEmperor Shōmu, the Kokubun-ji temples and Kokubun-ni-ji temples were erected throughout the whole country andTōdai-ji Temple and theDaibutsu were erected inNara. The Buddhist policy of the state reached its apex during the Nara period, as evidenced byJianzhen of theTang dynasty bringing an imperial ordination platform to Todai-ji Temple,
While Nara Buddhism followed only the "making a country safe" thought, Heian Buddhism brought not only nationalpeace andsecurity but also the personal worldlyprofit. Because practitioners of Heian Buddhism frequently performed severeascetic practices,incantations andprayers in the mountains; this Buddhism came to be calledmikkyō.Kūkai, a Buddhist monk, learned Chineseesoteric Buddhism while on a diplomatic mission to the Chinese court, and combined Japanese Buddhism with Chinese esoteric Buddhist practices to form JapaneseShingon Buddhism.Saichō, a Buddhist monk who also journeyed to China, learned the practices of the ChineseTendai sect and argued that the teachings of theLotus Sutra should be the core of Japanese Buddhism.
By the late Heian era, the earthly focus of Heian Buddhism led Buddhist monks to declare a "sinful age" wherein the possibility of relief in this world was denied and therefore a trend of looking for reincarnation to the Buddhists'paradise after death arose. Additionally, the new thought that "Buddhism will decline during the latter days of this world" led to the rise of thePure Land movement. This movement, spearheaded byKūya, a follower of Pure Land Buddhism, preached faith to theAmitābha and taught that all people could reach the Buddhist paradise, not just Buddhist monks.
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TheJōdo faith, which affected by the Jodo sect of the late Heian period, relies on salvation through the benevolence ofAmitābha, and is going to be relieved by its power.Hōnen, who initiated the Jodo sect of Buddhism, abandoned other ascetic practices entirely. He preached his pupils to believe in Amitabha and to earnestly pray "namu-amida-butsu", and so they would go to the paradise. His pupil,Shinran who initiatedPure Land Buddhism, thoroughly carried out Honen's teaching and preached the absolute dependence. In addition, Shinran advocated that an object of the relief of the Amitabha was a criminal who was aware of a worldly and desirous criminal oneself.Ippen, who initiated theJishu sect, began "the chanting religious dance".
As contrast with dependentJōdō faith,Zen Buddhism attempts to be spiritually self-awakened byZen meditation.Eisai learned theRinzai sect in China. He gave pupils a difficult problem and he made them solve it, and so they would be enlightened by themselves. Rinzai Zen was supported widely by the upper samurai class in theKamakura period.Dōgen learned theSōtō sect in China.[2] Oppose to Eisai, he preached enlightenment by earnest sitting meditation (zazen). Soto Zen was supported by the local samurais.
Most schools ofNichiren Buddhism (Japanese:法華系仏教Hokke-kei Bukkyō) refer to the priest and teacherNichiren as their founding father. In his teachings he underlined the, to his mind, supremacy of theLotus Sutra. He advocated the attainment of Buddhahood during one's lifetime and regarded his interpretation of the Buddhist teachings as the correct form of practice for the Latter Day of the Lawmappō. One of his major treatises is the "Rissho Ankoku Ron" (On Establishing the Correct teaching for the Peace of the Land). The chanting of theMantra "Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō" is to this day the central practice to almost all Nichiren Buddhist schools and organisations.
Whereas the ancient and medieval thought of Japan was tied closely toBuddhism, the early modern thought of Japan was mainlyConfucianism orNeo-Confucianism, which was designated for official study by theTokugawa shogunate. In addition,rational Confucianism stimulatedKokugaku,Rangaku and the non-official popular thought after the middleEdo period.
In theEdo period,Confucianism was the authorised study. Various schools ofneo-Confucianism were popular.
TheZhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism respectedfamily-likefeudal order which upheld fixed social positions.Hayashi Razan assumed the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism to be the theoretical basics of theTokugawa shogunate. Through the principle ofciviliangovernment,Yushima Seidō dedicating toConfucius was established. By theKansei Reforms, the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism were still more strengthened and authorized by the Tokugawa shogunate. In addition, the thought of a school of the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism gave big influence to the political movement advocating reverence for theEmperor and the expulsion offoreigners of the late Tokugawa era.
In contrast with the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism, theWang Yangming school of neo-Confucianism respecting practicalethics was consistently monitored and oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate because of its criticisms against the socio-political conditions under the Tokugawa shogunate.
The third schools of neo-Confucianism took consideration into the real intentions of original texts byConfucius andMencius.Yamaga Sokō established his philosophy on Confucian ethics, and assumed thesamurai to be the highest class.Itō Jinsai paid attention to "ren" of Confucius and he respected "ren" as thelove for another person and "truth" as pure consideration. In addition, deriving from his substantial studies of ancient Chinese classics,Ogyū Sorai insisted that the original Confucian spirit is to rule theworld and to save acitizen.
In the middle of theEdo period,Kokugaku, the study of ancient Japanese thought and culture, became popular against foreign ideas such asBuddhism orConfucianism. By theSakoku policy of the Tokugawa shogunate, Edo intellectuals could not have any positive contact with Western civilization, and soRangaku, Dutch learning, was the only window to theWest.
In the middle days of the Edo period,Kokugaku became popular while being influenced by positivistConfucianism withnationalism as a background. Kokugaku positively studied ancient Japanese thought and culture, including "Kojiki", "Nihon Shoki" and "Man'yōshū", and they aimed at excavating original moralculture of Japan which was different from Confucianism andBuddhism.Kamo no Mabuchi wrestled with the study of "Manyoshu" and called "masurao-buri" formasculine and tolerant style, and he evaluated the collection as pure and simple. Through his study of theKojiki,Motoori Norinaga argued that the essence of theJapanese literature came from "mono no aware" which were natural feelings to occur when you contacted an object. He respected Japanese "Yamato spirit" instead of Chinese (Confucianism / Buddhism) "Kara spirit". According to him, Kokugaku should pursue the Japanese old way of "Shinto". Through his study of Kokugaku,Hirata Atsutane advocated nationalisticState Shinto, the obedience to theEmperor and abolition of Confucianism and Buddhism. It was a driving force to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and theMeiji Restoration.
In theSakoku period of the Edo period, there was no direct contact with the West, butRangaku became popular by encouraging importation of Western books translated in Chinese from China during theKyōhō Reforms.Maeno Ryotaku andSugita Genpaku translated the Dutch "Tafel Anatomie" into Japanese. Dutch learning unfolded to other Western studies such as British, French and American studies by the late Tokugawa era. The manner of "Japanese spirit, Westerncivilisation" was completed bySakuma Shōzan’s straightforward expression, "Easternethics and Westerntechnology". BecauseTakano Chōei andWatanabe Kazan criticized Sakoku strictly, they were oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate.
In theEdo period, private schools were opened bysamurais,merchants and scholars who played an active part. Their thoughts were criticisms for the dominantfeudal order.
Ishida Baigan synthesizedConfucianism,Buddhism andShinto, and established practical philosophy for the masses. He recommended working hard atcommerce as the effect of honesty and thrift.Ando Shoeki called nature's world the ideal society where all human beings engaged infarming and they lived self-sufficiently without artificiality. He criticized alawful society where there was feudalclass discrimination and the difference between the rich and poor.Ninomiya Sontoku insisted that people must repay thevirtues, which supported their existence, with their own virtue.
While the early modern Japanese thought developed inConfucianism andBuddhism, EnglishEnlightenment and Frenchhuman rights were prevalent after theMeiji Restoration had become rapidly affected by Western thought. From the time ofSino- andRusso-Japanese Wars, Japanesecapitalism highly developed.Christianity andsocialism also developed and became tied to various social movements. In addition,nationalistic thought and study were formed while being opposed to foreign study.
In theMeiji Restoration, English and Frenchcivil society was introduced, in particular,utilitarianism andsocial Darwinism from England, andpopular sovereignty ofJean-Jacques Rousseau from France.
The thinkers of the early Meiji period advocated the British Enlightenment values derived from Western civil society. They attempted to criticise Japanese traditionalauthority andfeudalism. However they were finally in harmony with the government and accepted themodernization from the above without the radicalness. In 1873,Mori Arinori formedMeirokusha. The people who gathered in this cultural association had much in common with points such as regarding practical learning as important, catching human characteristics practically and assuming the form of government that accepted the conditions of a country an ideal. Mori Arinori promoted nationaleducation as Minister of Education.Nishi Amane affirmed a human behaviour based on interest.Katō Hiroyuki threw awaynatural rights under influence ofsocial Darwinism, and instead advocated the survival of the fittest.
Fukuzawa Yukichi, who introduced Britishutilitarianism to Japan and advocatednatural rights, assumed thathuman rights were given by Heaven. He considered the development of thecivilization to be the development of the human spirit, and it was assumed that one'sindependence led to independence of one country.[3] Fukuzawa thought thatgovernment is for the "sake of convenience", and its appearance should be suitable to the culture. He said that there is no single ideal form of government. In addition, he insisted that Japan should have gone into the continent externally against theGreat Powers.[4]
While members ofMeirokusha finally advocated harmonization of the government and people,democratic thinkers absorbed radical people'srights from France and they supported national resistance and revolution verbally against theMeiji oligarchy after theSatsuma Rebellion. In 1874,Itagaki Taisuke introduced the establishment of the electedlegislature. It spread nationwide as theFreedom and People's Rights Movement.Ueki Emori helped Itagaki and he drew up a radical draft. Strongly influenced byRousseau,Nakae Chōmin argued for people'ssovereignty and individualfreedom. However, concerning the Japanese situation, he pointed out the importance ofparliamentary monarchy. According to him, theImperial Constitution should be gradually revised by theDiet.
From the late period of Meiji to theTaishō era, ademocratic trend spread as a background of bourgeoispolitical consciousness. Its current led to political movements for safeguarding theConstitution and for thepopular election.Yoshino Sakuzō argued for party cabinet politics and popular election. He did not deeply pursue who was the sovereign but he insisted the political goal aim for people's happiness and political decisions aim for people's intentions.Minobe Tatsukichi interpreted a sovereign as not anemperor but thestate. According to him, an emperor only excises hispower as the highest organ under theMeiji Constitution. Although his theory was widely acknowledged at first, he was politically suppressed by the military and the rightists afterwards.
In 1911,Hiratsuka Raichō formedSeitosha. She asked for awakening of women's own right and development offeminist movement. WhileYosano Akiko deniedgender differences, Raicho emphasised motherhood raising a child and she acknowledged the official aids for women to demonstrate their feminine ability. In 1920, Raicho formed a new association for women withIchikawa Fusae andOku Mumeo. Soon after their activities were successful in getting women's participating at political addresses, the association fell apart due an internal schism. Later, Ichikawa formed a new one and continued a movement forfemale suffrage.
It wasChristians andsocialists who struggled with social contradictions derived from Japanesemodernity. Christian social movements were active after theSino- andRusso-Japanese Wars, which broughtcapitalism and its contradiction to Japanese society. Many Japanese socialists were influenced byChristian humanism, and in that point they were deeply associated withChristianity.
Christianity, banned by theTokugawa shogunate, influenced many Meiji intellectuals.Uchimura Kanzō developed "two Js" to uniteBushido and Christian spirit. He believed that his calling was to serve "Japan" and "Jesus". He argued for thenonchurch movement. He challenged theImperial Rescript on Education and spoke against theRusso-Japanese War.[5]Nitobe Inazō was aQuaker and attempted to uniteJapanese culture and Christianity. He introduced Japanese culture abroad and he became secretary-general of theLeague of Nations.Joseph Hardy Neesima studiedtheology abroad in the United States. He establishedDoshisha University at Kyoto and he was engaged in Christiancharacter building.
About the time of Sino- and Russo-Japanese wars, Japan succeeded in capitalization through theIndustrial Revolution as soon associalism spread againstcapitalism. However, the social movements were suppressed by thesecurity police law of 1900, and finally in theHigh Treason Incident of 1910 socialists were pressed by the military and thefascist government.Kawakami Hajime wrote articles aboutpoverty in a newspaper. He emphasized personal remodeling to solve poverty at first, however, later he became aMarxist and he argued for social remodeling by social compulsion.Kōtoku Shūsui originally attempted to realize socialism through theDiet, however he became aunionist and he argued for a direct action by ageneral strike. He was executed as the mastermind of the high treason incident of 1910.Osugi Sakae argued for individualfreedom using the principles ofanarchism andunionism. He was seen as a threat by the government and was assassinated bymilitary police in the disorder following the1923 Great Kantō earthquake.
TheAge of Enlightenment,Christianity andsocialism have influenced Japanese thought since theMeiji Restoration.The emphasis on Japanese politicalculture and nationaltradition rose as a reaction againstwesternization. This trend has had anideological side of legitimizingimperialism andmilitarism/fascism.[6]
Tokutomi Sohō published a magazine in which he argued forliberal democracy andpopulism against Japanesewesternization. However, he was disillusioned with thebourgeois who should play a political part in ...Kuga Katsunan regarded Japanesepolitical culture and nationaltradition very highly. He aimed for restoration and enhancement of national emotion; however, he was not a narrow-mindednationalist. He criticized the military and argued for aparliamentary system of government and expansion ofsuffrage.
After theMeiji Restoration, Japanese government protectedShinto and treated it not as a special religion but asState Shinto. The government closely related Shinto with the holyemperor, and they used Shinto as a tool for their stategovernance. State Shinto was clearly distinguished from private sects of the Shintoreligion. It was a model ofideological state governance to form State Shinto and to promulgate theImperial Rescript on Education. Meijistatism attempted to restore national sovereignty and pursuedimperialism andcolonialism through theSino- andRusso-Japanese Wars. However, itsmilitaristic trend developed toultra-nationalism.Kita Ikki advocated the exclusion of thezaibatsu, senior statesmen andpolitical parties and the establishment of government for direct connection with the emperor and the people.[7]
Yanagita Kunio was at the forefront of study of Japanesefolklore. He named members of the general public who are not political leaders andintellectuals as “jomin”. Other folklorists areMinakata Kumagusu,Yanagi Muneyoshi andOrikuchi Shinobu.
In pre-war Japan,German philosophy was eagerly studied and introduced. However, from the lateMeiji toTaishō period,Kyoto School attempted to harmonize Western thought with Eastern thought such asZen Buddhism.Nishida Kitaro established an original thought by fusion of Zen and Western thought. His thought is called Nishida philosophy. He insisted on pureexperience in which there is no opposition between subjectivity and objectivity.[8] Hisontology derived from absolute nothingness.Watsuji Tetsuro criticized Western selfishindividualism.[9] Hisethics says human beings are not in an isolatedexistence but related existence. He insisted that individual and social beings should be aware of their own individuality and social membership. He is also well known as hisClimate and Culture in which he studied the relationship between the natural environment and local lifestyle.
After World War II, many academic philosophers have published books on Continental philosophy and American philosophy. Among those,Ōmori Shōzō,Wataru Hiromatsu,Yasuo Yuasa andTakaaki Yoshimoto created original works under the influence ofMarxism,phenomenology andanalytic philosophy.Ōmori Shōzō created a unique monist epistemology based on his concepts of "representation monism", "double depiction", and "language animism". Wataru Hiromatsu developed his theory of "multi-subjective ontological structure of the world". Yasuo Yuasa advanced a new theory of the body influenced byMerleau-Ponty and the body image found inChinese medicine. Takaaki Yoshimoto is famous for his "shared illusion theory" and various philosophical essays on Japanese culture. Today, such scholars asKojin Karatani (literary theory),Hitoshi Nagai (solipsism),Shigeki Noya (analytic philosophy),Masahiro Morioka (philosophy of life),Motoyoshi Irifuji (analytic philosophy) are considered to be characteristic philosophers in the Japanese academy.[10]
