Japanese cyberpunk refers tocyberpunk fiction produced in Japan. There are two distinct subgenres of Japanese cyberpunk: live-action Japanese cyberpunk films, and cyberpunkmanga andanime works.[1]
Japanese cyberpunkcinema, also referred to as Extreme Japanese Cyberpunk, refers to a sub-genre ofunderground film produced inJapan, starting in the 1980s. It bears some resemblance to the 'low-life high-tech'cyberpunk, as understood in the West; however, it differs in its representation of industrial and metallic imagery and an unconventional narrative. The main directors associated with the Japanese cyberpunk movement areShinya Tsukamoto,Shozin Fukui, andSogo Ishii.[2] The origins of the genre can be traced back to the 1982 filmBurst City, before the genre was primarily defined by the 1989 filmTetsuo: The Iron Man.[3][unreliable source?] It has roots in the Japanesepunk subculture, which arose from theJapanese punk music scene in the 1970s, withSogo Ishii'spunk films of the late 1970s to early 1980s introducing this subculture toJapanese cinema and paving the way for Japanese cyberpunk.
Japanese cyberpunk also refers to a subgenre of manga and anime works with cyberpunk themes. This subgenre began in 1982 with the debut ofKatsuhiro Otomo'smanga seriesAkira, with its1988 anime film adaptation (which Otomo directed) later popularizing the subgenre.Akira inspired a wave of Japanese cyberpunk works, including manga andanime series such asGhost in the Shell,Battle Angel Alita,Cowboy Bebop, andSerial Experiments Lain.[4] Cyberpunk anime and manga have been influential on globalpopular culture, inspiring numerous works in animation, comics, film, music, television and video games.[5][6]
Japanese cyberpunk generally involves the characters, especially the protagonist, going through monstrous, incomprehensiblemetamorphoses in an industrial setting. Many of these films have scenes that fall into theexperimental film genre; they often involve purely abstract or visual sequences that may or may not relate to the characters and plot. Recurring themes include: mutation, technology, dehumanization, repression and sexual deviance.[7]
In contrast to Western cyberpunk which has roots inNew Wave science fiction literature, Japanese cyberpunk has roots inunderground music culture, specifically the Japanesepunk subculture that arose from theJapanese punk music scene in the 1970s. The filmmakerSogo Ishii introduced this subculture toJapanese cinema with hispunk filmsPanic High School (1978) andCrazy Thunder Road (1980), which portrayed the rebellion and anarchy associated with punk, and went on to become highly influential inunderground film circles.Crazy Thunder Road in particular was an influentialbiker film, with a punkbiker gang aesthetic that paved the way forKatsuhiro Otomo'sAkira. Ishii's next film was the freneticShuffle (1981), an unofficialshort film adaptation of amangacomic strip by Otomo.[8] According toPaul Gravett, when Akira began to be published, cyberpunk literature had not yet been translated into Japanese, Otomo has distinct inspirations such asMitsuteru Yokoyama's manga seriesTetsujin 28-go (1956–1966) andMoebius.[9]
Ishii's most influential film wasBurst City (1982).[8] Since its release, it has had a strong effect on the underground Japanese film scene.[10] It starredShigeru Izumiya, who would, four years later, go on to direct his own cyberpunk film,Death Powder, in 1986. The early short films ofShinya Tsukamoto, such asThe Adventures Of Electric Rod Boy (1987)[11][better source needed] andThe Phantom of Regular Size (1986)[12][better source needed] (whichTetsuo was a remake of), are often credited as precursors of the movement.[citation needed]
Some defining films in the genre include:[13][unreliable source?]
Related films include:[citation needed]
Cyberpunk themes are widely visible inanime andmanga. InJapan, wherecosplay is popular and not only teenagers display such fashion styles, cyberpunk has been accepted and its influence is widespread.William Gibson'sNeuromancer, whose influence dominated the early cyberpunk movement, was also set inChiba, one of Japan's largest industrial areas.[citation needed]
Cyberpunk anime and manga draw upon a futuristic vision which has elements in common with western science fiction and therefore have received wide international acceptance outside Japan. "The conceptualization involved in cyberpunk is more of forging ahead, looking at the new global culture. It is a culture that does not exist right now, so the Japanese concept of a cyberpunk future, seems just as valid as a Western one, especially as Western cyberpunk often incorporates many Japanese elements."[14] William Gibson became a frequent visitor to Japan, where he came to see that many of his visions of Japan were a reality:
Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk. TheJapanese themselves knew it and delighted in it. I remember my first glimpse ofShibuya, when one of the youngTokyo journalists who had taken me there, his face drenched with the light of a thousand media-suns—all that towering, animated crawl of commercial information—said, "You see? You see? It isBlade Runner town." And it was. It so evidently was.[15]
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Akira (1982 manga) and its1988 anime film adaptation have influenced numerous works in animation, comics, film, music, television and video games.[5][6]Akira has been cited as a major influence onHollywood films such asThe Matrix,[17]Dark City,[18]Chronicle,[19]Looper,[20]Midnight Special, andInception,[5] television shows such asStranger Things,[21] and video games such asHideo Kojima'sSnatcher[22] andMetal Gear Solid,[4]Valve'sHalf-Life series[23][24] andDontnod Entertainment'sRemember Me.[25]John Gaeta citedAkira as artistic inspiration for thebullet time effect inThe Matrix films.[17]Akira has also been credited with influencing theStar Wars franchise, including theprequel film trilogy and theClone Wars film and television series.[26]Akira has also influenced the work of musicians such asKanye West, who paid homage toAkira in the "Stronger" music video,[5] andLupe Fiasco, whose albumTetsuo & Youth is named after Tetsuo Shima.[27] The popular bike from the film, Kaneda's Motorbike, appears inSteven Spielberg's filmReady Player One,[28] andCD Projekt's video gameCyberpunk 2077.[29]Deus Ex: Mankind Divided video game developerEidos Montréal also paid homage to the film's poster.[30]
Ghost in the Shell (1989) influenced a number of prominent filmmakers.The Wachowskis, creators ofThe Matrix (1999) and its sequels, showed the1995 anime film adaptation ofGhost in the Shell to producerJoel Silver, saying, "We wanna do that for real."[31]The Matrix series took several concepts from the film, including theMatrix digital rain, which was inspired by the opening credits ofGhost in the Shell, and the way characters access the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks.[32] Other parallels have been drawn toJames Cameron'sAvatar,Steven Spielberg'sA.I. Artificial Intelligence, andJonathan Mostow'sSurrogates;[32] Cameron citedGhost in the Shell as an influence onAvatar.[33]Ghost in the Shell also influenced video games such as theMetal Gear Solid series,[34]Deus Ex,[35]Oni,[36][37][38] andCyberpunk 2077.[39][40]
Theoriginal video animationMegazone 23 (1985), with its concept of a simulated reality, has a number of similarities toThe Matrix,[41][better source needed]Dark City, andExistenz.[42]Battle Angel Alita (1990) has had a notable influence on filmmaker James Cameron, who was planning to adapt it into a film since 2000. It was an influence on his TV seriesDark Angel, and he is the producer of the 2018 film adaptationAlita: Battle Angel.[43]Comic book artist André Lima Araújo cited cyberpunk manga and anime such asAkira,Ghost in the Shell,Evangelion andCowboy Bebop as a major influence on his work, which includesMarvel Comics such asAge of Ultron,Avengers A.I.,Spider-Verse andThe Inhumans.[44]
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