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Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms ofZen Buddhism, an originallyChineseMahāyāna school ofBuddhism that strongly emphasizesdhyāna, themeditative training ofawareness andequanimity.[1] This practice, according to Zen proponents, gives insight into one'strue nature, or theemptiness of inherent existence, which opens the way to aliberated way of living.[1]
According to tradition, Zen originated inancient India, whenGautama Buddhaheld up a flower andMahākāśyapa smiled. With this smile he showed that he had understood the wordless essence of thedharma. This way the dharma was transmitted to Mahākāśyapa, the second patriarch of Zen.[2]
The term Zen is derived from theJapanese pronunciation of theMiddle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word ofdhyāna ("meditation"). Buddhism was introduced from India toChina in the first century AD. According to tradition, Chan was introduced around 500 C.E. byBodhidharma, an Indian monk teachingdhyāna. He was the 28th Indian patriarch of Zen and the first Chinese patriarch.[2]
Zen was first introduced into Japan as early as 653-656 C.E. in theAsuka period (538–710 C.E.), at the time when the set of Zen monastic regulations was still nonexistent and Chan masters were willing to instruct anyone regardless of buddhist ordination.Dōshō (道昭, 629–700 C.E.) went over to China in 653 C.E., where he learnedChan from the famed Chinese pilgrimXuanzang (玄奘, 602 – 664 C.E.), and he studied more fully with a disciple of the second Chinese patriarch,Huike (慧可, 487–593 C.E.) . After returning home, Dōshō established theHossō school, basing it on Yogācāra philosophy and built a Meditation Hall for the purpose of practising Zen in theGangō-ji inNara. In theNara period (710 to 794 C.E.), the Chan master,Dao-xuan (道璿, 702-760 C.E.), arrived in Japan, he taught meditation techniques to the monkGyōhyō (行表, 720–797 C.E.), who in turn was to instructSaichō (最澄, 767-822 C.E.), founder of the JapaneseTendai sect of Buddhism. Saicho visitedTang China in 804 C.E. as part of an official embassy sent byEmperor Kammu (桓武天皇, 781-806 C.E.). There he studied four branches of Buddhism including Chan andTiantai, which he was, by that time, already familiar with.
The first attempt of establishing Zen as an independent doctrine was in 815, when the Chinese monkYikong (義空) visited Japan as the representative of Chan's Southern-school lineage, based on the teachings of the masterMazu Daoyi (馬祖道一, 709–788 C.E.), who was the mentor ofBaizhang (百丈懐海, 720–814 C.E.), the supposed author of the initial set of Zen monastic regulations. Yikong arrived in 815 C.E. and tried unsuccessfully to transmit Zen systematically to the eastern nation. It is recorded in an inscription left at the famous Rashõmon gate protecting the southern entryway toKyoto that, on leaving to return to China, Yikong said he was aware of the futility of his efforts due to hostility and opposition he experienced from the dominant Tendai Buddhist school. What existed of Zen in theHeian period (794-1185 C.E.) was incorporated into and subordinate to the Tendai tradition. The early phase of Japanese Zen has been labeled "syncretic" because Chan teachings and practices were initially combined with familiar Tendai andShingon forms.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Zen found difficulties in establishing itself as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century, largely because of opposition, influence, power and criticism by theTendai school. During theKamakura period (1185–1333 C.E.),Nōnin established the first independent Zen school on Japanese soil, known as the short-lived and disapproved Daruma school.[8][7] In 1189 Nōnin[9] sent two students to China, to meet with Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203 C.E.), and ask for the recognition of Nōnin as a Zen-master. This recognition was granted.[10]
In 1168 C.E.,Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years.[11] In 1187 C.E. he went to China again, and returned to establish a local branch of theLinji school, which is known in Japan as theRinzai school.[12] Decades later,Nampo Jōmyō (南浦紹明) (1235–1308 C.E.) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the JapaneseŌtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai.
In 1215 C.E.,Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of theCaodong masterRujing. After his return,Dōgen established theSōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.[12]
Zen fit the way of life of thesamurai: confronting death without fear, and acting in a spontaneous and intuitive way.[12]
During this period theFive Mountain System was established, which institutionalized an influential part of the Rinzai school. It consisted of the five most famous Zen temples of Kamakura:Kenchō-ji,Engaku-ji,Jufuku-ji,Jōmyō-ji andJōchi-ji.[13]
During theMuromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by theshōgun.
In the beginning of theMuromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, which administered this system.[14] The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by theshōgun for the governing of state affairs.[15]
| Gozan system | ||
| Kyoto | Kamakura | |
|---|---|---|
| First Rank | Tenryū-ji | Kenchō-ji |
| Second Rank | Shōkoku-ji | Engaku-ji |
| Third Rank | Kennin-ji | Jufuku-ji |
| Fourth Rank | Tōfuku-ji | Jōchi-ji |
| Fifth Rank | Manju-ji | Jōmyō-ji |
Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence.[16] The O-to-kan lineage, that centered onDaitoku-ji, also had a greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen.[17] A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji wasIkkyū.[12]
Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of whichBassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher.[18]
After aperiod of war Japan was re-united in theAzuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island ofDejima.[12] New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was theŌbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during theEdo period byIngen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of theMing dynasty to theManchu people, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Ōbaku school was named afterMount Huangbo (黄檗山,Ōbaku-sān), which had been Ingen's home in China.
Well-known Zen masters from this period are Bankei, Bashō and Hakuin.[12]Bankei Yōtaku (盤珪永琢?, 1622–1693 C.E.) became a classic example of a man driven by the "great doubt".Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉?, 1644 – November 28, 1694) became a leading Zen poet. In the 18th centuryHakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴?, 1686–1768) revived the Rinzai school. His influence was so strong that almost all contemporary Rinzai lineages are traced back to him.
TheMeiji period (1868–1912 C.E.) saw the Emperor's power reinstated after a coup in 1868 C.E. At that time Japan was forced to open to Western trade which brought influence and, eventually, a restructuring of all government and commercial structures to Western standards.Shinto became the officiated state religion and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. The Buddhist establishment saw the Western world as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to.[19][20]
Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in theNihonjinron philosophy, the "Japanese uniqueness" theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture[21]
This resulted in support for the war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf,
They became willing accomplices in the promulgation of thekokutai (national polity) ideology—the attempt to render Japan a culturally homogeneous and spiritually evolved nation politically unified under the divine rule of the emperor.[21]
War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during thePacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.[20][22]
A notable work on this subject wasZen at War (1998) byBrian Victoria,[20] an American-born Sōtō priest. One of his assertions was that some Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of "worldpeace" were openJapanese nationalists in the inter-war years.[web 1] Among them as an exampleHakuun Yasutani, the founder of theSanbo Kyodan School, even voicedantisemitic and nationalistic opinions afterWorld War II. Only after international protests in the 1990s, following the publication ofZen at War, did the Sanbo Kyodan express apologies for this support.[web 2] This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported themilitarist state. Victoria's particular claims aboutD. T. Suzuki's involvement in militarism have been much disputed by other scholars.
Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such asHarada Daiun Sogaku andShunryū Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of emptyrituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has largely been reduced to officiating atfunerals, a practice sardonically referred to in Japan assōshiki bukkyō (葬式仏教; funeral Buddhism).[citation needed] For example, the Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death.[23]
Mahayana Buddhism teachesśūnyatā, "emptiness", which is also emphasized by Zen. But another important doctrine is thebuddha-nature, the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but do not realize this as long as they are notawakened. The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to the idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances.[24]
The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtra.[24]
The primary goal of Rinzai Zen iskensho, seeing one's true nature, andmujodo no taigen, expression of this insight in daily life.[25]
Seeing one's true nature means seeing that there is no essential 'I' or 'self', that our true nature isempty.
Expression in daily life means that this is not only a contemplative insight, but that our lives are expressions of this selfless existence.[web 3]
Zen emphasizeszazen,meditation c.q.dhyana in a sitting position. In Soto, the emphasis is onshikantaza, 'just sitting', while Rinzai also uses koans to train the mind. In alternation with zazen, there iswalking meditation,kinhin, in which one walks with full attention.To facilitate insight, a Zen teacher can assign akōan. This is a short anecdote, which seems irrational, but contains subtle references to the Buddhist teachings.[21] An example of a kōan is Joshu's 'Mu':[26]
A monk asked: "Does a dog have buddha-nature?" Joshu responded: "Mu!"
Zen-meditation aims at "non-thinking," in Japanesefu shiryō andhi shiryō. According to Zhu, the two terms negate two different cognitive functions both calledmanas inYogacara, namely "intentionality"[27] or self-centered thinking,[28] and "discriminative thinking" (vikalpa).[27] The usage of two different terms for "non-thinking" points to a crucial difference between Sōtō and Rinzai in their interpretation of the negation of these two cognitive functions.[27] According to Rui, Rinzai Zen starts withhi shiryō, negating discriminative thinking, and culminates infu shiryō, negating intentional or self-centered thinking; Sōtō starts withfu shiryō, which is displaced and absorbed byhi shiryō.[29][note 1]
The traditional institutional traditions (shū) of Zen inJapan areSōtō (曹洞),Rinzai (臨済), andŌbaku (黃檗). Sōtō and Rinzai dominate, while Ōbaku is smaller.
TheSōtō school was founded byDōgen (1200–1253) and is a Japanese branch of the ChineseCaodong school. It emphasizes meditation and the inseparable nature of practice and insight. Its founderDogen is still highly revered. Soto is characterized by its flexibility and openness. No commitment to study is expected and practice can be resumed voluntarily.
TheRinzai school was founded byEisai (1141–1215) and is a Japanese branch of the ChineseLinji school. It emphasizes kōan study andkensho. The Rinzai organisation includes fifteen subschools based on temple affiliation. The best known of these main temples areMyoshin-ji,Nanzen-ji,Tenryū-ji,Daitoku-ji, andTofuku-ji. Rinzai is characterized by its stringent regiments of meditation through every second of life. Whether a practitioner is practicing seated meditation, walking meditation, working, or even out in public, meditation can be applied to each instance of a Rinzai student's life.
TheŌbaku school was introduced from China by theIngen in 1654. Often termed the third sect of Zen Buddhism in Japan, it had a strong influence on Japanese Rinzai, which partly adopted Ōbaku-practices, and partly reinstored older practices in response to the Ōbaku-school.
There are modern Zen organizations in Japan which have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely theSanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.
TheSanbo Kyodan is a small Japanese lay organization, established byHakuun Yasutani, which has been very influential in the West. Well-known teachers from this school arePhilip Kapleau andTaizan Maezumi. Maezumi's influence stretches further through his dharma heirs, such asJoko Beck,Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, and especiallyDennis Merzel, who has appointed more than a dozen dharma heirs.
The FAS Society is a non-sectarian organization, founded byShin'ichi Hisamatsu. Its aim is to modernize Zen and adapt it to the modern world. In Europe it is influential through such teachers asJeff Shore andTon Lathouwers.
Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit ofSoyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, toChicago during theWorld Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners pursuing a serious interest in Zen, other than descendants of Asian immigrants, reached a significant level.
Eugen Herrigel's bookZen in the Art of Archery[32] describing his training in the Zen-influencedmartial art ofKyūdō, inspired many of the Western world's early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars, such as Yamada Shoji, are quick to criticize this book.[33]
The single most influential person for the spread of Zen Buddhism wasD. T. Suzuki.[19][21] A lay student of Zen, he became acquainted with Western culture at a young age. He wrote many books on Zen which became widely read in the Western world, but he has been criticised for giving a one-sided and overly romanticized vision of Zen.[19][21][34]
Reginald Horace Blyth (1898–1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during World War II and started writing in prison. While imprisoned he met Robert Aitken, who was later to become a roshi in the Sanbo Kyodan lineage. Blyth was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume "Zen and Zen Classics", published in the 1960s. Here he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include "God, Buddha, and Buddhahood" and "Zen, Sin, and Death".
The BritishphilosopherAlan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during the 1950s. He understood Zen as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical andfine arts.
The Dharma Bums, anovel written byJack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group ofAmerican youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was "Japhy Ryder", a thinly veiled depiction ofGary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.[35]
Thomas Merton (1915–1968) was aCatholicTrappist monk and priest.[web 4] Like his friend, the lateD.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki[36] explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen.[37]
Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle (1898–1990) was a Jesuit who became a missionary in Japan in 1929. In 1956 he started to study Zen with Harada Daiun Sogaku. He was the superior ofHeinrich Dumoulin, the well-known author on the history of Zen. Enomiya-lassalle introduced Westerners to Zen meditation.
Robert Kennedy (roshi), aCatholicJesuit priest, professor,psychotherapist and Zenroshi in the White Plum lineage has written a number of books about what he labels as the benefits of Zen practice to Christianity. He was ordained a Catholic priest in Japan in 1965, and studied withYamada Koun inJapan in the 1970s. He was installed as a Zen teacher of theWhite Plum Asanga lineage in 1991 and was given the title 'Roshi' in 1997.
In 1989, theVatican released a document which states some Catholic appreciation of the use of Zen in Christian prayer. According to the text none of the methods proposed by non-Christian religions should be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian:
On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian concept of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured.[web 5]
WhileZen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, byRobert M. Pirsig, was a 1974bestseller, ZMM in fact has little to do with Zen as a religious practice, nor with motorcycle maintenance for that matter. Rather it deals with the notion of themetaphysics of "quality" from the point of view of the main character. As well as being a PhD Philosopher and an English teacher, his research involved periods living in India and Korea. By the time the book was published Pirsig was attending theMinnesota Zen Center and he used early royalties from his best seller to sponsor bringing Dainin Katagiri to the center. He has stated that, despite its title, the book "should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice". Though it may not deal with orthodox Zen Buddhist practice, Pirsig's book in fact deals with many of the more subtle facets of Zen living and Zen mentality without drawing attention to any religion or religious organization. And indeed, Pirsig's main focus in ZMM and his later book Lila (1991) was to create an integration of Western and Eastern thought in his Metaphysics of Quality.
A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. This typically involves the use of Zen stories to explain leadership strategies.[38]
In Europe, theExpressionist andDada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of kōans and actual Zen. The early FrenchsurrealistRené Daumal translatedD.T. Suzuki as well asSanskrit Buddhist texts.
Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.
In North America, the Zen lineages derived from theSanbo Kyodan school are the most numerous.[39] TheSanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 byYasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style kōan practice. Yasutani's approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world throughPhilip Kapleau's bookThe Three Pillars of Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy. Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive fromSanbo Kyodan are those associated with Kapleau,Robert Aitken, andJohn Tarrant.
The most widespread are the lineages founded byHakuyu Taizan Maezumi and theWhite Plum Asanga. Maezumi's successors includeSusan Myoyu Andersen,John Daido Loori,Chozen Bays,Tetsugen Bernard Glassman,Dennis Merzel,Nicolee Jikyo McMahon,Joan Hogetsu Hoeberichts, andCharlotte Joko Beck.
Soto has gained prominence viaShunryu Suzuki, who established theSan Francisco Zen Center. In 1967 the Center established Tassajara, the first Zen Monastery in America, in the mountains nearBig Sur.
The Katagiri lineage, founded byDainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as priests atZenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.
Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest fromJapan who taught inFrance. TheInternational Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. TheAmerican Zen Association, headquartered at theNew Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.
Soyu Matsuoka established the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center in 1971, where he resided until his death in 1998. The Temple was headquarters to Zen centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington.Matsuoka created several dharma heirs, three of whom are still alive and leading Zen teachers within the lineage: Hogaku ShoZen McGuire, Zenkai Taiun Michael Elliston Sensei, and Kaiten John Dennis Govert.
Brad Warner is a Soto priest appointed byGudo Wafu Nishijima. He is not a traditional Zen teacher, but is influential via his blogs on Zen.
Rinzai gained prominence in the West viaD.T. Suzuki and the lineage ofSoen Nakagawa and his studentEido Shimano. Soen Nakagawa had personal ties toYamada Koun, the dharma heir ofHakuun Yasutani, who founded theSanbo Kyodan.[40] They establishedDai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji in New York. In Europe there isHavredal Zendo established by aDharma Heir of Eido Shimano, Egmund Sommer (Denko Mortensen).
Some of the more prominent Rinzai Zen centers in North America includeRinzai-ji founded byKyozan Joshu Sasaki Roshi in California,Chozen-ji founded byOmori Sogen Roshi in Hawaii,Daiyuzenji founded by Dogen Hosokawa Roshi (a student of Omori Sogen Roshi) in Chicago, Illinois, andChobo-Ji founded byGenki Takabayshi Roshi in Seattle, Washington.
The lineage ofHakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented in the UK by theWhite Plum Sangha UK.
Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey was founded as a sister monastery toShasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett Roshi. It has a number of dispersed priories and centres.[citation needed] Jiyu Kennett, an Englishwoman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan.[note 2] The Order is called theOrder of Buddhist Contemplatives.[citation needed] There are several affiliated temples across the UK, including theNorwich Zen Buddhist Priory.[41]
Taisen Deshimaru Roshi's lineage is known in the UK asIZAUK (International Zen Association UK).[citation needed]
TheZen Centre in London is connected to theBuddhist Society.
Zenways[42] is aRinzai school organisation inSouth London. It is led byDaizan Roshi a British teacher who received Dharma transmission fromShinzan Miyamae Roshi.
The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chán practitioners based in the UK.[citation needed] They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the US.
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