TheJanapadas (lit. 'Foothold of the people') (pronounced[dʑɐnɐpɐdɐ]) (c. 1100–600 BCE) were therealms,republics (ganapada) andkingdoms (sāmarājya) of theVedic period in theIndian subcontinent. The Vedic period reaches from the lateBronze Age into theIron Age: from about 1500 BCE to the 6th century BCE. With the rise of sixteenMahajanapadas ("great janapadas"), most of the states wereannexed by more powerful neighbours, although some remained independent.[1]
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TheSanskrit termjanapada is atatpurusha compound term, composed of two words:jana andpadna.Jana means "go" or "do your business" (cf.Latincognategenus,English cognatekin). The wordpada means "foot" (cf. Latin cognatepedis);[2][3] from its earliest attestation, the word has had a double meaning of "realm, territory" and "subject population" (cf. Hittitepedan, "place"). Linguist George Dunkel compares theGreekandrapodon "slave", toPIE*pédom "fetters" (i.e. "what is attached to the feet"). Sanskritpadám, usually taken to mean "footprint, trail", diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction.For the sense of "population of the land",padasya janas, the invertedpadajana would be expected. A primary meaning of "place of the people",janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An originaldvandva "land and people" is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected.[4]
Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1100 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term "janapada" occurs in theAitareya (8.14.4) andShatapatha (13.4.2.17)Brahmana texts.[6]
In theVedicsamhitas, the termjana denotes a tribe, whose members believed in a shared ancestry.[7] The janas were headed by a king (raja). The council (samiti) was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. Thesabha was a smaller assembly of wise elders, who advised the king.[8]
The janas were originally semi-nomadicpastoral communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile. Variouskulas (clans) developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings headed byjanapadins (Kshatriya warriors). This model ultimately evolved into the establishment of political units known as the janapadas.[9]
While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada. According to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of thePanchala janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five (pancha) janas.[10] Some janas (such as Aja and Mutiba) mentioned in the earliest texts do not find a mention in the later texts. Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas.[10]
Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE. Their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers (such asMagadha) in Northern India, as well as foreign invasions (such as those by thePersians and theGreeks) in the north-western South Asia.[11]
The Janapada were highest political unit in Northern India during this period; these polities were usually monarchical (though some followed a form of republicanism) and succession was hereditary. The head of a kingdom was a king (raja). A chief priest (purohita) and a commander of the army (senani) who would assist the king. There were also two other political bodies: the (samiti), thought to be a council of elders and thesabhā, a general assembly of the entire people.[12]
Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighboring kingdoms, as was the case between the northern and southernPanchala and between the western (Pandava's kingdom) and eastern (Kaurava's kingdom)Kuru. Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed their boundaries as was the case ofNaimisha Forest, the Naimisha Aranyam between Panchala andKosala kingdoms. Mountain ranges likeHimalaya,Vindhyachal andSahyadri also formed their boundaries.
Some kingdoms possessed a main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava's kingdom wasIndraprastha and the Kaurava's kingdom wasHastinapura.Ahichatra was the capital of Northern Panchala whereasKampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala.Kosala had its capital atAyodhya. Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread throughout the kingdom, from which tax was collected by officers appointed by the king. What the king offered in return was protection from attack by other kings and bandit tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced law and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty.[13][14]
The Janapadas hadKshatriya rulers.[16] Based on literary references, historians have theorized that the Janapadas were administered by the following assemblies in addition to the king:
Some historians have also theorized that there was a common assembly called the "Paura-Janapada", but others such asRam Sharan Sharma disagree with this theory. The existence of Paura and Janapada itself is a controversial matter.[19]
Indian nationalist historians such asK. P. Jayaswal have argued that the existence of such assemblies is evidence of prevalence of democracy in ancient India.[20] V. B. Misra notes that the contemporary society was divided into the fourvarnas (besides theavarna or outcastes), and the Kshatriya ruling class had all the political rights.[21] Not all the citizens in a janapada had political rights.[1] Based onGautama's Dharmasutra, Jayaswal theorized that the low-casteshudras could be members of the Paura assembly.[19] According toA. S. Altekar, this theory is based on a misunderstanding of the text: the term "Paura" in the relevant portion of theDharmasutra refers to a resident of the city, not a member of the city assembly.[22] Jayaswal also argued that the members of the supposed Paura-Janapada assembly acted as counselors to the king, and made other important decisions such as imposing taxes in times of emergency. Once again, Altekar argued that these conclusions are based on misinterpretations of the literary evidence. For example, Jayaswal has wrongly translated the word "amantra" in aRamayana verse as "to offer advice"; it actually means "to bid farewell" in proper context.[22]
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There was no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king might conduct a military campaign (often designated asDigvijaya meaningconquest of the four directions) and defeat another king in a battle, lasting for a day.[25] The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might sometimes be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Such tribute would be collected only once, not on a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, would be free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another. Often a military general (senapati) conducted these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military campaign and tribute collection was often associated with a great sacrifice (likeRajasuya orAshvamedha) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigning king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally.[26]
New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in a generation. TheKuru clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, theYadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.[27]
Parts of western India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture, considered non-Vedic by the mainstreamVedic culture prevailing in theKuru and Panchala kingdoms. Similarly, there were some tribes in the eastern regions of India considered to be in this category.[28] Tribes with non-Vedic culture — especially those of barbaric nature — were collectively termed asMleccha. Very little was mentioned in the ancientIndian literature about the kingdoms to the North, beyond theHimalayas.China was mentioned as a kingdom known asCina, often grouped withMleccha kingdoms.
TheVedas mention five sub-divisions of ancient India:[29]
The Vedic literature mentions the followingjanas orjanapadas:[30]
| Jana or Janapada | IAST name | Region | Mentioned in Rigveda | Mentioned in Atharvaveda |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aja | Aja | Central | ✓ | |
| Alina | Alina | Western | ✓ | |
| Ambashtha | Ambaśṭha | Central | ||
| Andhra | Āndhra | Southern | ✓ | |
| Anga | Aṅga | Eastern | ✓ | |
| Anu | Anu | Western | ✓ | |
| Balhika | Balhika | Northern | ✓ | |
| Bhalana | Bhalana | Western | ✓ | |
| Bharadvaja | Bharadvāja | Central | ✓ | |
| Bharata | Bharata | Central | ✓ | |
| Bheda | Bheda | Central | ✓ | |
| Bodha | Bodha | Central | ||
| Chedi | Cedi | Central | ✓ | |
| Druhyu | Druhyu | Western | ✓ | |
| Gandhara | Gandhāra | Western | ✓ | ✓ |
| Kamboja | Kamboja | Northern | ||
| Keshin | Keśin | Central | ||
| Kikata | Kīkaṭa | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ |
| Kirata | Kirāta | Eastern | ||
| Kosala | Kosala | Eastern | ||
| Krivi | Krivi | Central | ✓ | |
| Kunti | Kunti | Central | ||
| Kalinga | Kalinga | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ |
| Kuru | Kuru | Central | ✓ | ✓ |
| Magadha | Magadha | Eastern | ✓ | |
| Mahavrisha | Mahāvṛṣa | Northern | ✓ | |
| Matsya | Matsya | Central | ✓ | |
| Mujavana | Mūjavana | Northern | ✓ | ✓ |
| Mutiba | Mūtiba | Southern | ✓ | |
| Nishada | Niṣāda | Central | ||
| Paktha | Paktha | Western | ✓ | |
| Panchala | Pāñcala | Central | ||
| Parshu | Parśu | Western | ✓ | |
| Paravata | Pārāvata | Central | ✓ | |
| Prithu | Pṛthu | Western | ✓ | |
| Pulinda | Pulinda | Southern | ✓ | |
| Pundra | Puṇḍra | Eastern | ✓ | |
| Puru | Pūru | Western | ✓ | |
| Rushama | Ruśama | Central | ✓ | |
| Salva | Śālva | Central | ||
| Satvanta | Satvanta | Southern | ||
| Shabara | Śabara | Southern | ✓ | |
| Shigru | Śigru | Central | ✓ | |
| Shiva | Śiva | Western | ✓ | |
| Shvikna | Śvikna | Central | ||
| Srinjaya | Sṛñjaya | Central | ✓ | ✓ |
| Tritsu | Tṛtsu | Central | ✓ | |
| Turvasha | Turvaśa | Western | ✓ | |
| Ushinara | Uśīnara | Central | ✓ | |
| Uttara Kuru | Uttara Kuru | Northern | ||
| Uttara Madra | Uttara Madra | Northern | ||
| Vaikarna | Vaikarṇa | Northern | ✓ | |
| Vanga | Vaṅga | Eastern | ||
| Kashi | Kāśi | Eastern | ||
| Varashikha | Varaśikha | Central | ✓ | |
| Vasha | Vaśa | Central | ||
| Vidarbha | Vidarbha | Southern | ✓ | |
| Videha | Videha | Eastern | ||
| Vishanin | Viśaṇin | Western | ✓ | |
| Vrichivanta | Vṛcivanta | Western | ✓ | |
| Yadu | Yadu | Western | ✓ | |
| Yakshu | Yakṣu | Central | ✓ |
ThePuranas mention seven sub-divisions of ancient India:[31]
According to research by political scientist Sudama Misra, the Puranic texts mention the followingjanapadas:[32]
| Janapada | Region | Mentioned in the Puranas? | Alternative names and locations | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matsya (Chapter 114) | Vayu (Chapter 45) | Markandeya (Chapter 57) | Vamana (Chapter 13) | Brahmanda (Chapter 16) | |||
| Ābhīra (northern) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Ābhīra (southern) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Abhīṣaha (Abhishaha) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Apanga (Vayu), Aupadha (Markandeya), Alasa (Vamana) | |
| Āhuka | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kuhaka (Markandeya), Kuhuka (Vamana) | |
| Alimadra | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Anibhadra (Markandeya), Alibhadra (Vamana) | ||
| Ānarta | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ĀvantyaMarkandeya,Vamana |
| Andhaka | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Āndhra | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Andha (Markandeya) | |
| Andhravāka | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Andhāraka (Markandeya) | ||
| Aṅga | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Central and Eastern inVamana | ||
| Aṅgāramāriṣa (Angara-Marisha) | Southern | ✓ | |||||
| Āntaranarmada | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Uttaranarmada (Markandeya), Sunarmada (Vamana) |
| Antargiri | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Anūpa | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Arūpa (Matsya), Annaja (Vayu) |
| Aparīta | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Purandhra (Matsya), Aparānta (Markandeya) |
| Arthapa | Central | ✓ | ✓ | Atharva (Markandeya) | |||
| Aśmaka (Ashmaka) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Aśvakūṭa | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Āṭavi | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Āraṇya (Markandeya), Āṭavya (Brahmanda) | |
| Ātreya | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Atri (Matsya,Brahmanda) |
| Auṇḍra | Vindhyan | ✓ | |||||
| Avanti | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Central and Vindhyan inMatsya |
| Bahirgiri | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Vāhlīka | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Bahula | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Pahlava (Vayu), Bahudha (Vamana) | ||
| Barbara | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Central and Northern inVamana | |
| Bhadra | Eastern and Central | ✓ | |||||
| Bhadrakāra | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Bharadvāja | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Bhārgava | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Bharukaccha | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Bhanukaccha (Vayu), Bhīrukahcha (Markandeya), Dārukachchha (Vamana), Sahakaccha (Brahmanda) |
| Bhogavardhana | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Bhoja | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Gopta (Vamana) |
| Bhūṣika (Bhushika) | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Bodha | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Bāhya (Matsya) | ||
| Brahmottara | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Suhmottara (Matsya), Samantara (Brahmanda) |
| Carmakhaṇḍika (Charmakhandika) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Attakhaṇḍika (Matsya), Sakheṭaka (Vamana) |
| Kerala | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kevala (Markandeya) |
| Cīna (China) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Pīna (Vayu), Veṇa (Vamana) | |
| Cola (Chola) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Caulya (Vayu), Cauḍa (Vamana); Southern and Eastern inBrahmanda | |
| Cūlika (Chulika) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Cūḍika (Vamana), Vindhyacūlika (Brahmanda) | |
| Daṇḍaka | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Darada | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Darva | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Himalayan and Northern inVayu andMarkandeya | |
| Daśeraka (Dasheraka) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Karseruka (Vayu), Kuśeruka (Markandeya) |
| Daśamālika (Dashamalika) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Daśanāmaka (Matsya), Daśamānika (Vayu), Daṅśana (Vamana) |
| Daśarṇa (Dasharna) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Druhyu | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Hrada (Vayu), Bhadra (Brahmanda) | ||
| Durga | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Durgala (Brahmanda) | |
| Ganaka | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Gandhāra | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Godha | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Golāṅgūla | Southern | ✓ | |||||
| Gonarda | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Govinda (Vayu), Gomanta (Markandeya), Mananda (Vamana) |
| Haṃsamārga | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Sarvaga (Himalayan) inMatsya; Haṃsamārga (Northern and Himalayan) inVayu andMarkandeya; Karnamārga (Northern) and Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) inVamana; Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) Haṃsabhaṅga (Northern) inBrahmanda |
| Hara-Hunaka | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Pūrṇa (Vayu), Ūrṇa (Markandeya), Cūrṇa (Vamana), Hūṇa (Brahmanda) | |
| Hāramuṣika (Haramushika) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Hāramūrtika (Matsya), Hārapūrika (Vayu), Sāmuṣaka (Vamana) | |
| Huhuka | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Samudgaka (Matsya), Sahūdaka (Vayu), Sakṛtraka (Markandeya), Śahuhūka (Vamana), Sahuhūka (Brahmanda) |
| Ijika | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Īṣīka (Ishika) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vaisakya (Markandeya) | |
| Jaguda | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Jāṇgala (Matsya), Juhuḍa (Vayu), Jāguḍa (Markandeya) | ||
| Jāṇgala | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Jñeyamarthaka | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Jñeyamallaka (Markandeya), Aṅgiyamarṣaka (Vamana), Gopapārthiva (Brahmanda) | |
| Kachchhika | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kāchchhīka (Matsya), Kacchīya (Vayu), Kāśmīra (Markandeya), Kacchipa (Brahmanda) | |
| Kālatoyaka | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Kalinga (central) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Arkalinga (Markandeya) | |
| Kalinga (southern) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Kalitaka | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kālītaka (Vayu), Anīkaṭa (Markandeya), Tālīkaṭa (Vamana), Kuntala (Brahmanda) | |
| Kalivana | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kolavana (Vayu), Kālivala (Markandeya), Vāridhana (Vamana), Kalivana (Brahmanda) | |
| Kāmboja | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Kantakara | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kanṭakāra (Matsya), Raddhakaṭaka (Vayu), Bahubhadra (Markandeya), Kādhara (Vamana) | |
| Kāraskara | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Paraṣkara (Vayu), Kaṭhākṣara (Markandeya), Karandhara (Brahmanda) |
| Kārūṣa (Karusha) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Southern and Vindhyan (Matsya) |
| Kāśmīra (Kashmira) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Kauśika | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Kekeya | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kaikeyya (Matsya), Kaikeya (Markandeya), Kaikeya (Vamana) |
| Khasa | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Khaśa (Vamana), Śaka (Brahmanda) | |
| Kirāta | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kirāta (Matsya, Central and Himalayan) |
| Kisaṇṇa | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Kiṣkindhaka (Kishkindhaka) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kikarava (Vamana) |
| Koṅkaṇa | Southern | ✓ | |||||
| Kośala (Central) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Kośala (Vindhyan) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Kukkuṭa | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Kulūta | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | Ulūta (Brahmanda) | |||
| Kulya | Southern and Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Only Central inMarkandeya; only Southern inVamana andBrahmanda |
| Kumara | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kupatha (Matsya), Kumana (Vayu), Kusuma (Markandeya), Kumārāda (Vamana), Kṣapaṇa (Brahmanda) |
| Kuninda | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Pulinda (Matsya), Kaliṅga (Markandeya), Kalinda (Brahmanda) | |
| Kuntala | Southern and Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kuntala ( (Matsya, only Central), Kuṇḍala (Vamana) |
| Kupatha | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kṣupaṇa (Vayu), Kurava (Markandeya) |
| Kuru | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kaurava (Vamana) | |
| Kuśalya (Kushalya) | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Kuśūdra (Kushudra) | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Kuthaprāvaraṇa | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kuśaprāvaraṇa (Vayu), Kuntaprāvaraṇa (Markandeya), Apaprāvaraṇa (Brahmanda) |
| Lalhitta | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Lampāka | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Lamaka (Brahmanda) |
| Madraka | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Bhadraka (Vayu andVamana), Maṇḍala (Brahmanda) |
| Madguraka | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Mudgara (Markandeya), Mudagaraka (Brahmanda) | |
| Mādreya | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Magadha | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Central and Eastern inVayu andBrahmanda |
| Maharāṣṭra (Maharashtra) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Navarāṣṭra (Matsya) |
| Māheya | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Māhiṣika (Mahishika) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Māhiṣaka (Vayu andMarkandeya) |
| Mālada | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Mālava (Matsya), Manada (Markandeya), Mansāda (Vamana) |
| Malaka | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Malavartika | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Mallavarṇaka (Matsya), Mālavartin (Vayu), Mānavartika (Markandeya), Baladantika (Vamana) |
| Mālava | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Ekalavya (Vamana), Malada (Brahmanda) | |
| Malla | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Śālva (Matsya), Māla (Vayu), Māia (Vamana) |
| Maṇḍala | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Mālava (Vayu), Mālava (Markandeya) | |
| Māṇḍavya | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Māṣa (Masha) | Vindhyan | ✓ | |||||
| Mātaṅga | Eastern | ✓ | |||||
| Matsya | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Yatstha (Vamana) | |
| Maulika | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Maunika (Vayu) | ||
| Mekala | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Rokala (Vayu), Kevala (Markandeya) |
| Arbuda | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Mūka | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Mūṣika (Mushika) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Sūtika (Matsya), Mūṣikāda (Vamana), Mūṣika (Brahmanda) |
| Nairṇika | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Naiṣika (Markandeya) | ||
| Nalakālika | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vanadāraka (Markandeya), Nalakāraka (Vamana) | ||
| Nāsikya | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vāsikya (Matsya), Nāsikānta (Vamana), Nāsika (Brahmanda) |
| Nirāhāra | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Nigarhara (Vayu), Nihāra (Markandeya) |
| Naiṣadha (Naishadha) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Niṣāda (Vayu) |
| Pahlava | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Pallava (all exceptVayu) |
| Pāṇavīya | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Pāñcala (Panchala) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Pāṇḍya (Pandya) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Puṇḍra (Markandeya), Puṇḍra (Vamana) |
| Pārada | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Parita (Vayu), Pāravata (Vamana) |
| Paṭaccara (Patachchara) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Śatapatheśvara (Vayu) | ||
| Paurika | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Paunika (Vayu), Paurika (Markandeya), Paurika (Vamana), Paurika (Brahmanda) | |
| Pluṣṭa (Plushta) | Himalayan | ✓ | |||||
| Pragjyotisha | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Prasthala | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Puṣkala (Markandeya) |
| Pravaṅga | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Plavaṅga (Matsya andBrahmanda) |
| Prāvijaya | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Prāviṣeya (Brahmanda) |
| Priyalaukika | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Harṣavardhana (Markandeya), Aṅgalaukika (Vamana), Aṅgalaukika (Brahmanda) | |
| Puleya | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kulīya (Matsya), Pulinda (Markandeya), Pulīya (Vamana), Pauleya (Brahmanda) |
| Pulinda | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Puṇḍra | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Muṇḍa (Vayu), Madra (Markandeya), Pṛsadhra (Vamana) |
| Rākṣasa (Rakshasa) | Southern | ✓ | |||||
| Rāmaṭha | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Māṭhara (Markandeya), Māṭharodha (Vamana) | |
| Rūpasa | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Kūpasa (Vayu), Rūpapa (Markandeya), Rūpaka (Brahmanda) | |
| Sainika | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Pidika (Vayu), Śūlika (Markandeya), Jhillika (Brahmanda) | |
| Salva (Shalva) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Saraja | Vindhyan | ✓ | |||||
| Sārasvata | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Sārika | Southern | ✓ | |||||
| Surāṣṭra (Surashtra) | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Saurāṣṭra (Matsya) |
| Sauśalya (Saushalya) | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Sauvīra | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Setuka | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Śailūṣa (Markandeya), Jānuka (Vamana) |
| Śabara (Shabara) | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Bara (Vayu), Śarava (Brahmanda) | |
| Śaka (Shaka) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Central inVamana | |
| Suhma | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Śaśikhādrika (Shashikhadraka) | Himalayan | ✓ | |||||
| Śatadruja (Shatadruja) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | Śatadrava (Vamana) | |||
| Ṣaṭpura | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Padgama (Matsya), Ṣaṭsura (Vayu), Paṭava (Markandeya), Bahela (Vamana) |
| Śulakara (Shulakara) | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Śūrpāraka | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Sūrpāraka (Vayu), Sūryāraka (Markandeya), Sūryāraka (Brahmanda) | |
| Sindhu | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Sirāla | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Surāla (Vayu), Sumīna (Markandeya), Sinīla (Vamana), Kirāta (Brahmanda) |
| Śudra (Shudra) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Suhya (Brahmanda) |
| Sujaraka | Eastern | ✓ | |||||
| Supārśva (Suparshva) | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Śūrasena (Shurasena) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Taittrika | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Taittirika (Matsya), Turasita (Vayu), Kurumini (Markandeya), Tubhamina (Vamana), Karīti (Brahmanda) |
| Talagana | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Talagāna (Matsya), Stanapa (Vayu), Tāvakarāma (Vamana), Tālaśāla (Brahmanda) | |
| Tāmasa | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Chamara (Matsya), Tomara (Vamana), Tāmara (Brahmanda) |
| Tāmas | Western | ✓ | |||||
| Tāmralipataka | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Taṅgaṇa | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Apatha (Matsya), Gurguṇa (Markandeya) |
| Taṅgaṇa | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Tuṅgana (Markandeya) | |
| Tāpasa | Western | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Svāpada (Markandeya), Tāpaka (Brahmanda) |
| Tilaṇga | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Tomara | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Tāmasa (Markandeya andVamana) | |
| Tośala (Toshala) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Traipura | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Trigarta | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Tumbara | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Tumbura (Vayu), Tumbula (Markandeya),Barbara (Brahmanda) |
| Tumura | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Tumbura (Markandeya), Turaga (Vamana), Tuhuṇḍa (Brahmanda) |
| Tuṇḍikera | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Śauṇḍikera (Matsya), Tuṣṭikāra (Markandeya) |
| Tūrṇapāda | Northern | ✓ | |||||
| Tuṣāra (Tushara) | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Tukhāra (Markandeya) | |
| Udbhida | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Ulida (Vamana), Kulinda (Brahmanda) | |
| Urṇa | Himalayan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Huṇa (Vayu) |
| Utkala | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Eastern and Central inBrahmanda |
| Uttamārṇa | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Uttama (Brahmanda) | |
| Vāhyatodara | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Girigahvara (Brahmanda) | |
| Vanavāsika | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vājivasika (Matsya), Banavāsika (Vayu), Namavāsika (Markandeya), Mahāśaka (Vamana) |
| Vaṅga | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Central and Eastern inVamana | ||
| Vāṅgeya | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Mārgavageya (Matsya), Rāṅgeya (Markandeya), Vojñeya (Brahmanda) |
| Kāśī (Kashi) | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Vāṭadhāna | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Vatsa | Central | ✓ | |||||
| Vātsīya | Western | ✓ | |||||
| Vaidarbha | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
| Videha | Eastern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
| Vaidiśa (Vaidisha) | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vaidika (Vayu), Kholliśa (Vamana) |
| Vindhyamūlika | Southern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vindhyapuṣika (Matsya), Vindhyaśaileya (Markandeya), Vindhyamaulīya (Brahmanda) | |
| Vītihotra | Vindhyan | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Vīrahotra (Markandeya), Vītahotra (Vamana) |
| Vṛka | Central | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
| Yamaka | Eastern | ✓ | |||||
| Yavana | Northern | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Gavala (Markandeya) |
TheBhishma Parva of theMahabharata mentions around 230 janapadas, while theRamayana mentions only a few of these. Unlike the Puranas, theMahabharata does not specify any geographical divisions of ancient India, but does support the classification of certain janapadas as southern or northern.[33]
The Buddhist canonical texts -Anguttara Nikaya,Digha Nikaya,Chulla-Niddesa, although with some differences between them, primarily refer to the following 16mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"):[34]
The Jain textVyākhyāprajñapti orBhagavati Sutra also mentions 16 important janapadas, but many names differ from the ones mentioned in the Buddhist texts.[34]
... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...
... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...
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