Jamaica[a] is anisland country in theCaribbean, covering 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi). It is the third-largest island in theGreater Antilles and the Caribbean, afterCuba and the island ofHispaniola.[8] Jamaica lies about 145 km (78 nmi) south of Cuba, 191 km (103 nmi) west of Hispaniola (the island containingHaiti and theDominican Republic), and 215 km (116 nmi) southeast of theCayman Islands (aBritish Overseas Territory).[8] With 2.8 million people,[9][10] Jamaica is the third most populousAnglophone country in theAmericas and the fourth most populous country in the Caribbean.Kingston is the country's capital and largest city.
The indigenousTaíno peoples of the island gradually came underSpanish rule after the arrival ofChristopher Columbus in 1494. Many of the indigenous people either were killed or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers of Africans to Jamaica as slaves.[8] The island remained a possession of Spain, under the nameSantiago, until 1655, whenEngland (part of what would become theKingdom of Great Britain) conquered it and named itJamaica. It became an important part of the colonialBritish West Indies. Under Britain's colonial rule, Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with a plantation economy dependent on continued importation of African slaves and their descendants. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to havesubsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British began usingChinese andIndianindentured labourers for plantation work. Jamaicans achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962.[8]
Jamaica is an upper-middle-income country[11] with an economy heavily dependent on tourism; it has an average of 4.3 million tourists a year.[12] The country has a global influence that belies its small size; it was the birthplace of theRastafari religion andreggae music (and such associated genres asdub,ska, anddancehall); and it is internationally prominent in sports, includingcricket,sprinting, andathletics.[13][14][15][11] Jamaica has sometimes been considered the world's least populouscultural superpower.[16][17][18][19]
Etymology
Theindigenous people, the Taíno, called the islandXaymaca in theirlanguage,[b] meaning the "Land of Wood and Water" or the "Land of Springs".[20]Yamaye has been suggested as an early Taíno name for the island as recorded byChristopher Columbus.[21]
Jamaicans often refer to their home island as "yaad" – the Jamaican Patois word for yard, meaning home. Other colloquial names such as "Jamrock", "Jamdown" ("Jamdung" inJamaican Patois), or briefly "Ja" are also widely used.[22][user-generated source?][23][failed verification]
There is no archaeological evidence of any human presence on Jamaica until about 500.[24] A group known as the "Redware people" after their pottery arrived circa 600,[25] followed by the Taíno circa 800, who most likely came fromSouth America.[25][26] They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed bycaciques (chiefs).[25] The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.[27]
Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.[27] Some fled into interior regions, merging with AfricanMaroon communities.[28][29][30] The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of the Taíno.[31]
Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 on his second voyage to the Americas.[25] His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, calledDiscovery Bay,[32] andSt. Ann's Bay was named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. He later returned in 1503; however, he was shipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for a year while waiting to be rescued.[33]
One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island,Sevilla, which was established in 1509 byJuan de Esquivel but abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy.[34] The capital was moved toSpanish Town, then calledSt. Jago de la Vega, around 1534.[25][35] Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers, both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by the Spanish.[25] As a result, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to the island.[36]
Henry Morgan was aCaribbean pirate, privateer, plantation owner and slaveholder; he had first come to the West Indies as an indentured servant, like most of the early English colonists.[40]
The English began taking an interest in the island and, following a failed attempt to conquerSanto Domingo onHispaniola,Admiral William Penn and GeneralRobert Venables led aninvasion of Jamaica in 1655.[41] Battles atOcho Rios in 1657 and theRio Nuevo in 1658 resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Maroon community under the leadership ofJuan de Bolas switched sides from the Spanish, and began supporting the English. With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured.[42] In 1661 English civil government was formed andRoundhead soldiers turned their attention to governance and agricultural responsibilities.[43]
When the English captured Jamaica, most Spanish colonists fled, with the exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remain. Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving.[42] Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the already establishedmaroon communities.[44] During the centuries of slavery,Jamaican Maroons established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations, under the leadership of Maroon leaders such asJuan de Serras.[45]
Meanwhile, the Spanish made several attempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support pirates attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant on Jamaica, with the city ofPort Royal becoming notorious for its lawlessness. Spain later recognised English possession of the island with theTreaty of Madrid (1670).[46] After that, the English authorities sought to rein in the worst excesses of the pirates.[25] During this period, Cromwell had begun to extradite Scottish criminals of war fromScotland to the island, with 1,200 Scots being sent to the island which had recently been colonised by England. The method of sending Scottish prisoners of war to the island continued, and as a result, Scots played a significant role in the development of the island, being credited as "indentured and skilled labourers".[47]
In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black.[48] By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed a majority of the population.[49] TheIrish in Jamaica also formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoingWars of the Three Kingdoms.[50] Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century.[51]
A limited form of local government was introduced with the creation of theHouse of Assembly of Jamaica in 1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners.[52] In 1692, the colony was rocked by anearthquake that resulted in several thousand deaths and the almost complete destruction of Port Royal.[53]
A plantation set alight during the Baptist War of 1831–32
During the 1700s the economy boomed, based largely on sugar and other crops for export such ascoffee,cotton andindigo. All these crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal lives with no rights, being the property of a small planter-class.[25] In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined the Maroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in TheFirst Maroon War (1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate. The British government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons led byCudjoe andAccompong in 1739, and the Windward Maroons led byQuao andQueen Nanny in 1740.[54]
By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumberingwhite people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the British had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly from Africa.[citation needed] While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce,[56] prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church.[citation needed] The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws. Members, with membership then restricted to European-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened.
The Britishabolished the slave trade in 1807, but not the institution itself.[57] In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as theBaptist War, broke out, led by the Baptist preacherSamuel Sharpe. The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and the destruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by the plantocracy class.[58]
As a result of rebellions such as these, as well as the efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834, with fullemancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838.[25] The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 "coloured" orfree people of colour (mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves.[48]
The resulting labour shortage prompted the British to begin to "import"indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations.[25] Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854.[59] Many Jamaicans are descendants of South Asian and Chinese people.[60][61] Over the next 20 years, several epidemics ofcholera,scarlet fever, andsmallpox hit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day).[citation needed] Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of whom were males, and 259,581 females. Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (known as the Browning Class), and 392,707 black.[62] There was an economic slump in this period, with many Jamaicans living in poverty. Dissatisfaction with this, and continued racial discrimination and marginalisation of the black majority, led to the outbreak of theMorant Bay rebellion in 1865, led byPaul Bogle, which was put down by GovernorJohn Eyre with such brutality that he was recalled from his position.[25] His successor,John Peter Grant, enacted a series of social, financial and political reforms while aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which became a Crown Colony in 1866.[25] In 1872 the capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston.[25]
Early 20th century
Marcus Garvey, father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica's first National Hero
In 1907, Jamaica was struck byan earthquake which, together with the subsequent fire, resulted in considerable destruction in Kingston and caused the deaths of between 800 and 1,000 people.[63][25]
Unemployment and poverty remained a problem for many Jamaicans. Various movements seeking political change arose as a result, most notably theUniversal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League founded byMarcus Garvey in 1917. As well as seeking greater political rights and an improvement for the condition of workers, Garvey was also a prominentPan-Africanist and proponent of theBack-to-Africa movement.[64] He was also one of the chief inspirations behind Rastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combined Christianity with anAfrocentric theology focused on the figure ofHaile Selassie, Emperor ofEthiopia. Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew to become an established faith on the island, later spreading abroad.
Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. In 1958 it became a province in theFederation of the West Indies, a federation of several ofBritain's Caribbean colonies.[25] Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive, however, and areferendum on the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave.[25] After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attained fullindependence on 6 August 1962.[25] The new state retained, however, its membership in theCommonwealth of Nations (with the British monarch as head of state) and adopted aWestminster-style parliamentary system. Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister.[68][69]
Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per year, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante,Donald Sangster (who died of natural causes within two months of taking office) andHugh Shearer.[25] The growth was fuelled by high levels of private investment inbauxite/alumina,tourism, the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. In the1967 Jamaican general election, the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats.[70]
In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became a member of theNon-Aligned Movement, seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and the United States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba.[25]
The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor, many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston.[25] This led to the voterselecting the PNP underMichael Manley in 1972. The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16.[70]
Manley's government enacted various social reforms, such as a higherminimum wage, land reform, legislation for women's equality, greater housing construction and an increase in educational provision.[71][25] Internationally he improved ties with the Communist bloc and vigorously opposed theapartheid regime inSouth Africa.[25]
In 1976, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.[72] However, the economy faltered in this period due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks).[25] The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense, andpolitical and gang-related violence grew significantly in this period.[25]
By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level.[citation needed] Seeking change, in 1980 Jamaicans voted the JLPback in underEdward Seaga, the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.[70][25] Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba and sent troops to support theUS invasion of Grenada in 1983.[25] The economic deterioration, however, continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest and third-largest alumina producers,Alpart andAlcoa, closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer,Alcan.[citation needed] Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy.[citation needed] Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government soughtInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures.[25] These resulted in strikes in 1985 and a decline in support for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government's response to the devastation caused byHurricane Gilbert in 1988.[25][73] Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting a more centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP werere-elected in 1989, winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15.[74][25]
The PNP went on to win a string of elections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992),P. J. Patterson (1992–2005) andPortia Simpson-Miller (2005–2007). In the1993 Jamaican general election, Patterson led the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats. Patterson also won the1997 Jamaican general election, by another landslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats.[72] Patterson's third consecutive victory came in the2002 Jamaican general election, when the PNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced byPortia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister. The turnout slowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in 2002.[74]
During this period various economic reforms were introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating the Jamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst also retaining a strong social safety net.[25] Political violence, so prevalent in the previous two decades, declined significantly.[25][75]
In2007 the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%.[76] This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, andBruce Golding became the new prime minister.[77] Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by the effects of theglobal recession, as well as the fallout froman attempt by Jamaican police and military to arrest drug lordChristopher Coke in 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting in over 70 deaths.[25][78] As a result of this incident Golding resigned and was replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011.
Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would have been better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country.[79][80] Holness and the JLP were defeated in the2011 Jamaican general election, which saw Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power. The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to the JLP's 21. The voter turnout was 53.17%.[81]
Holness's JLP won the2016 general election narrowly, defeating Simpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February. The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32. As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.[82]
In the2020 general election, Andrew Holness secured a second consecutive win for the Jamaica Labour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time byPeter Phillips. The last time a consecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980. However, the turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic. However, this low turnout was a trend that continued in subsequent elections.[83]
In the2025 Jamaican general election, Holness created history, securing a third consecutive term for the JLP, the first time the party had won three general elections in a row. However, this victory was achieved with a much-reduced majority. The JLP won 34 seats to the 29 won by theMark Golding led PNP. The turnout was again low, at just 39.5%.[84]
Jamaica is aparliamentary democracy andconstitutional monarchy.[8][85] The head of state is theKing of Jamaica (currentlyKing Charles III),[86] represented locally by theGovernor-General of Jamaica.[87][8][85] The governor-general is nominated by the Prime Minister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and then formally appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor-general serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from theirreserve powers for use in certain constitutional crisis situations. The position of the monarch has been a matter ofcontinuing debate in Jamaica for many years; currently both major political parties are committed to transitioning to a republic with a president.[88][89]
Jamaica's currentconstitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962, which was passed by theParliament of the United Kingdom, which gave Jamaica independence.[85]
TheParliament of Jamaica isbicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament orMPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentaryLeader of the Opposition and are then appointed by the governor-general.[85]
Jamaica has traditionally had atwo-party system, with power often alternating between thePeople's National Party (PNP) andJamaica Labour Party (JLP).[85] The party with current administrative and legislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, after its 2020 victory. There are also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; the largest of these is theNational Democratic Movement (NDM).
The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica.[8] The JDF is based on the British military model with similar organisation, training, weapons and traditions. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at Up Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew. As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.[citation needed]
The JDF is directly descended from theBritish Army'sWest India Regiment, which was formed during the colonial era.[91] The West India Regiment was used extensively throughout theBritish Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of theWest Indies Federation, after dissolution of the Federation the JDF was established.[92]
The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises aninfantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit.[93] The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conduct maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations.[94]
The role of the support battalion is to provide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training in order to allow for the readiness of the force.[95] The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to an increased demand for military engineers and their role is to provide engineering services whenever and wherever they are needed.[96] The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections.[97]
In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation's police, theJamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens.[98] In 2017, Jamaica signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[99] In September 2024 the AP reported that "20 soldiers and four police officers are scheduled to arrive in Haiti to support the UN-Kenya lead mission and they would provide command, planning and logistics support." Jamaica's PM had pledged a total of 170 soldiers and 30 police officers, but said that all would not deploy at once.[100]
Jamaica is divided into 14parishes, which are grouped into three historiccounties that have no administrative relevance.[85]
In the context oflocal government the parishes are designated "Local Authorities". These local authorities are further styled as "Municipal Corporations", which are either city municipalities or town municipalities.[101] Any new city municipality must have a population of at least 50,000, and a town municipality a number set by the Minister of Local Government.[101] There are currently no town municipalities.
The local governments of the parishes of Kingston and St. Andrews are consolidated as the city municipality of Kingston & St. Andrew Municipal Corporation. The newest city municipality is the Municipality of Portmore, created 2003. While it is geographically located within the parish of St. Catherine, it is governed independently.
Jamaica is the third-largest island in the Caribbean.[102] It lies between latitudes17° and19°N, and longitudes76° and79°W. Mountains dominate the interior: the Don Figuerero, Santa Cruz, and May Day mountains in the west, theDry Harbour Mountains in the centre, and theJohn Crow Mountains andBlue Mountains in the east, the latter containingBlue Mountain Peak, Jamaica's tallest mountain at 2,256 m.[8][85] They are surrounded by a narrow coastal plain.[103][8] Jamaica has two cities, the first beingKingston, the capital city and centre of business, located on the south coast and the second beingMontego Bay, one of the best known cities in the Caribbean for tourism, located on the north coast.Kingston Harbour is the seventh-largest natural harbour in the world,[104] which contributed to the city being designated as the capital in 1872. Other towns of note includePortmore,Spanish Town,Savanna la Mar,Mandeville and the resort towns ofOcho Ríos,Port Antonio andNegril.[105]
Tourist attractions includeDunn's River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon inPortland, a dormant volcano's crater,[106] andPort Royal, site of a major earthquake in 1692 that helped form the island'sPalisadoes tombolo.[107]
Among the variety of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems are dry and wet limestone forests, rainforest, riparian woodland, wetlands, caves, rivers, seagrass beds and coral reefs. The authorities have recognised the tremendous significance and potential of the environment and have designated some of the more "fertile" areas as "protected". Among the island's protected areas are theCockpit Country,Hellshire Hills, and Litchfield forest reserves. In 1992, Jamaica's first marine park, covering nearly 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), was established inMontego Bay.Portland Bight Protected Area was designated in 1999.[108] The following yearBlue and John Crow Mountains National Park was created, covering roughly 300 square miles (780 km2) of a wilderness area which supports thousands of tree and fern species and rare animals.
There are several small islands off Jamaica's coast, most notably those inPortland Bight such as Pigeon Island, Salt Island, Dolphin Island, Long Island,Great Goat Island andLittle Goat Island, and alsoLime Cay located further east. Much further out – some 50–80 km off the south coast – lie the very smallMorant Cays andPedro Cays.
Climate
Köppen climate classification of Jamaica
The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate.[109][85] Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dryrain-shadow areas.[110]
Jamaica lies within theMain Development Region for Atlantictropical cyclone activity, and because of this, the island sometimes suffers significant storm damage.[111][85] HurricanesCharlie andGilbert hit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and many deaths. In the 2000s (decade), hurricanesIvan,Dean, andGustav also brought severe weather to the island. In 2025,Hurricane Melissa made landfall as a Category 5, far surpassing Gilbert as the strongest landfalling storm in Jamaican history.
Jamaica's climate is tropical, supporting diverse ecosystems with a wealth of plants and animals. Its plant life has changed considerably over the centuries; when the Spanish arrived in 1494, except for small agricultural clearings, the country was deeply forested. The European settlers cut down the great timber trees for building and ships' supplies, and cleared the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes for intense agricultural cultivation.[85] Many new plants were introduced including sugarcane, bananas, and citrus trees.[85]
Jamaica is home to about 3,000 species ofnative flowering plants (of which over 1,000 areendemic and 200 are species oforchid), thousands of species of non-flowering flora, and about 20botanical gardens, some of which are several hundred years old.[112][113] Areas of heavy rainfall also contain stands of bamboo, ferns, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood. Cactus and similar dry-area plants are found along the south and southwest coastal area. Parts of the west and southwest consist of large grasslands, with scattered stands of trees. Jamaica is home to three terrestrialecoregions, theJamaican moist forests,Jamaican dry forests, andGreater Antilles mangroves.
Jamaica's fauna, typical of the Caribbean, includes highly diversified wildlife with many endemic species. As with other oceanic islands, land mammals are mostly several species ofbats of which at least three endemic species are found only in Cockpit Country, one of which is at-risk. Other species of bat include thefig-eating andhairy-tailed bats. The only non-bat native mammal extant in Jamaica is theJamaican hutia, locally known as the coney.[85] Introduced mammals such aswild boar and thesmall Asian mongoose are also common. Jamaica is also home to about 50 species of reptiles,[114] the largest of which is theAmerican crocodile; however, it is only present within the Black River and a few other areas. Lizards such asanoles,iguanas and snakes such as racers and theJamaican boa (the largest snake on the island), are common in areas such as the Cockpit Country. None of Jamaica's eight species of native snakes is venomous.[115]
One species of freshwater turtle is native to Jamaica, theJamaican slider. It is found only on Jamaica and on a few islands inthe Bahamas. In addition, many types of frogs are common on the island, especiallytreefrogs.
Jamaican waters contain considerable resources of fresh and saltwater fish.[118] The chief varieties of saltwater fish arekingfish,jack,mackerel,whiting,bonito, andtuna. Fish that occasionally enter freshwater and estuarine environments includesnook,jewfish,mangrove snapper, andmullets. Fish that spend the majority of their lives in Jamaica's fresh waters include many species oflivebearers,killifish, freshwatergobies, the mountain mullet, and theAmerican eel.Tilapia have been introduced from Africa for aquaculture, and are very common. Also visible in the waters surrounding Jamaica are dolphins,parrotfish, and the endangeredmanatee.[119]
Insects and other invertebrates are abundant, including the world's largest centipede, theAmazonian giant centipede. Jamaica is the home to about 150 species of butterflies and moths, including 35 indigenous species and 22 subspecies. It is also the native home to theJamaican swallowtail, the western hemisphere's largest butterfly.[120]
Aquatic life
White River Rafting
Coral reef ecosystems are important because they provide people with a source of livelihood, food, recreation, and medicinal compounds and protect the land on which they live.[121] Jamaica relies on the ocean and its ecosystem for its development. However, the marine life in Jamaica is also being affected. There could be many factors that contribute to marine life not having the best health. Jamaica's geological origin, topographical features and seasonal high rainfall make it susceptible to a range of natural hazards that can affect the coastal and oceanic environments. These include storm surge, slope failures (landslides), earthquakes, floods and hurricanes.[122] Coral reefs in the Negril Marine Park (NMP), Jamaica, have been increasingly impacted bynutrient pollution and macroalgal blooms following decades of intensive development as a major tourist destination.[123]
Another one of those factors could include tourism: being that Jamaica is a very touristy place, the island draws numerous people travelling here from all over the world. The Jamaican tourism industry accounts for 32% of total employment and 36% of the country's GDP and is largely based on the sun, sea and sand, the last two of these attributes being dependent on healthy coral reef ecosystems.[121] Because of Jamaica's tourism, they have developed a study to see if the tourist would be willing to help financially to manage their marine ecosystem because Jamaica alone is unable to. The ocean connects all the countries all over the world, however, everyone and everything is affecting the flow and life in the ocean. Jamaica is a very touristy place specifically because of their beaches. If their oceans are not functioning at their best then the well-being of Jamaica and the people who live there will start to deteriorate. According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annually in value-added to the overall economy.[124] A developing country on an island will get the majority of their revenue from their ocean.
Pollution
Pollution comes from run-off, sewage systems, and garbage. However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after there is rain or floods. Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality and balance of the ocean. Poor coastal water quality has adversely affected fisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biological sustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats.[122] Jamaica imports and exports many goods through their waters. Some of the imports that go into Jamaica include petroleum and petroleum products. Issues include accidents at sea; risk of spills through local and international transport of petroleum and petroleum products.[122] Oil spills can disrupt the marine life with chemicals that are not normally found in the ocean. Other forms of pollution also occur in Jamaica. Solid waste disposal mechanisms in Jamaica are currently inadequate.[122] The solid waste gets into the water through rainfall forces. Solid waste is also harmful to wildlife, particularly birds, fish and turtles that feed at the surface of the water and mistake floating debris for food.[122] For example, plastic can be caught around birds' and turtles' necks, making it difficult to eat and breath as they begin to grow, causing the plastic to get tighter around their necks. Pieces of plastic, metal, and glass can be mistaken for the food fish eat. Each Jamaican generates 1 kg (2 lbs) of waste per day; only 70% of this is collected by National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA)—the remaining 30% is either burnt or disposed of in gullies/waterways.[125]
Environmental policies
There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water. The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.[122] Developing an underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country. Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources.[122] Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem. Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promotesustainable tourism practices.[122]
Jamaica's diverse ethnic roots are reflected in the national motto"Out of Many One People". Some dispute the appropriateness of the motto because Jamaicans are overwhelmingly of a single race. The Jamaican founding fathers were mostly White orbrown men and unrepresentative of the views of the country's majority Black population.[126][127][128]
Most of the population of 2,812,000 (July 2018 est.)[8] are of African or partially African descent, with many being able to trace their origins to the West African countries of present-dayGhana andNigeria.[85][129] Other major ancestral areas areEurope,[60]South Asia, andEast Asia.[citation needed] It is uncommon for Jamaicans to identify themselves by race as is prominent in other countries such as the United States, with most Jamaicans seeing Jamaican nationality as an identity in and of itself, identifying as simply being "Jamaican" regardless of ethnicity.[130][131] A study found that the average admixture on the island was 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0%European, and 5.7%East Asian.[132]
A more precise study was conducted by the local University of the West Indies – Jamaica's population is more accurately 76.3% African descent or Black, 15.1% Afro-European (or locally called the Brown Man or Browning Class), 3.4% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, 3.2% White, 1.2% Chinese and 0.8% Other.[1] TheJamaican Maroons of Accompong and other settlements are the descendants of African slaves who fled the plantations for the interior, where they set up their own autonomous communities.[133][134][135] Many Maroons continue to have their own traditions and speak their own language, known locally asKromanti.[136]
Asians form the third-largest group (after the Browning Class – i.e. descendants of the mulattos during slavery and other interracial mixtures subsequent to emancipation) and include Indo-Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans.[137] Most are descended from indentured workers brought by the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following the abolition of slavery in 1838. Along with their Indian counterparts,Chinese Jamaicans have also played an integral part in Jamaica's community and history.[citation needed] There are about 20,000 Jamaicans who haveLebanese andSyrian ancestry.[138] Most were Christian immigrants who fled theOttoman occupation of Lebanon in the early 19th century. Eventually, their descendants became very successful politicians and businessmen.[citation needed]
The first wave of English immigrants arrived on the island in 1655 after conquering the Spanish, and they have historically been the dominant group. The first Irish immigrants came to Jamaica in the 1600s as war prisoners and, later, as indentured laborers. War criminals identified by Oliver Cromwell fromScotland were exiled to Jamaica during the 1650s, and as a result,Scots andScottish Jamaicans have made a significant impact on the island, including many Jamaicans having common Scottish surnames, place names across the island of Scottish origins, the establishments ofPresbyterian churches by Scots across the island in the 17th century, as well as the national flag of Jamaica taking inspiration from thenational flag of Scotland.[139]
Northern suburbs ofKingston, Jamaica's capital and largest city
There is also a significant Jamaican population of Portuguese descent that is predominantly ofSephardic Jewish heritage.[140][141][142][143] The first Jews arrived as explorers from Spain in the 15th century after being forced to choose between expulsion orconversion to Christianity. A small number of them became slave owners or pirates.[144] Judaism eventually became very influential in Jamaica and can be seen today with many Jewish cemeteries around the country. Duringthe Holocaust, Jamaica became a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in Europe.[145]
By 2015 immigration had increased, coming mainly from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans lived in Jamaica.[146] In 2016, Prime Minister Andrew Holness suggested making Spanish Jamaica's second official language.[147] About 7,000 Americans live in Jamaica.[citation needed]
Jamaica is regarded as abilingual country, with two major languages used by the population.[148][137] The official language is(Jamaican) English, which is "used in all domains of public life", including the government, the legal system, the media, and education. However, the primary spoken language is anEnglish-based creole language calledJamaican Patois (or Patwa). The two exist in a dialect continuum, with speakers using a different speech register depending on the context and to whom they speak. "Pure" Patois, though sometimes perceived as merely a particularly aberrant dialect of English, is essentially mutually unintelligible with standard English and linguists consider it a distinct language, though most of its vocabulary originally derives from English.[85] A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit found that 17.1 percent of the population weremonolingual in Jamaican Standard English (JSE), 36.5 percent were monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earlier surveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilingualism (up to 90 percent).[149] The Jamaican education system had only in about 2015 begun to offer formal instruction in Patois while retaining JSE as the "official language of instruction".[150]
Many Jamaicans haveemigrated to other countries, especially the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.[152] There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to other Caribbeans countries such as Cuba,[153] Puerto Rico, Guyana, and The Bahamas. It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 million Jamaicans and Jamaican descendants lived abroad.[154]
When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in the world.[163] By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world.[164] Gang violence became a serious problem, with organised crime being centred aroundJamaican posses or "Yardies". Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according toUN estimates.[165][166] Some areas of Jamaica, particularly poor areas inKingston,Montego Bay and elsewhere experience high levels of crime and violence.[167]
However, there were 1,683 reported murders in 2009 and 1,447 in 2010.[168] After 2011 the murder rate continued to fall, following the downward trend in 2010, after a strategic programme was launched.[169] In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reported a 30 percent decrease in murders.[170] Nevertheless, in 2017, murders rose by 22% over the previous year.[171]
Many Jamaicans are hostile towardsLGBT andintersex people,[172][173][174] and mob attacks against gay people have been reported.[175][176][177] Numerous high-profile dancehall andragga artists have produced songs featuring explicitly homophobic lyrics.[178] This has prompted the formations of LGBT rights organisations, such asStop Murder Music.[179] Homosexuality isillegal and punishable by imprisonment.[180][181]
The Rastafari movement has 29,026 adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and 3,701 Rastafarian females.[15] The faith originated in Jamaica in the 1930s and though rooted in Christianity it is heavily Afrocentric in its focus, revering figures such as the Jamaican black nationalistMarcus Garvey andHaile Selassie, the former Emperor of Ethiopia.[186][85] Rastafari has since spread across the globe, especially to areas with large black or African diasporas.[187][188]
Various faiths and traditional religious practices derived from Africa are practised on the island, notablyKumina,Convince,Myal andObeah.[189][190][191]
There is also a small population of about 200Jews, who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.[198] The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th-century Spain and Portugal.[199]Kahal Kadosh Shaare Shalom, also known as the United Congregation of Israelites, is a historic synagogue located in the city ofKingston. Originally built in 1912, it is the official and only Jewish place of worship left on the island. The once abundant Jewish population has voluntarily converted to Christianity over time.[200] Shaare Shalom is one of the few synagogues in the world that contains sand covered floors and is a popular tourist destination.[201][202]
A historic Ashura celebration in Jamaica, which is known locally as Hussay or Hosay
Other small groups includeMuslims, who claim 5,000 adherents.[15] The Muslim holidays ofAshura (known locally as Hussay orHosay) andEid have been celebrated throughout the island for hundreds of years. In the past, every plantation in each parish celebrated Hosay. Today it has been called an Indian carnival and is perhaps most well known in Clarendon where it is celebrated each August. People of all religions attend the event, showing mutual respect.[203][60]
The emancipation of the slaves heralded the establishment of an education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals and many sent their children off to England to access quality education.[citation needed] After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known asAll Age Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches.[204] This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system.
Presently the following categories of schools exist:
Early childhood – Basic, infant and privately operated pre-school. Age cohort: 2 – 5 years.
Primary – Publicly and privately owned (privately owned being called preparatory schools). Ages 3 – 12 years.
Secondary – Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 19 years. The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditionalEnglish grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies.
Tertiary – Community colleges; teachers' colleges, with the Mico Teachers' College (now The MICO University College) being the oldest, founded in 1836; the Shortwood Teachers' College (which was once an all-female teacher training institution); vocational training centres, colleges and universities, publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities: theUniversity of the West Indies (Mona Campus); theUniversity of Technology, Jamaica, formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); theNorthern Caribbean University, formerly West Indies College; theUniversity of the Commonwealth Caribbean, formerly the University College of The Caribbean; and theInternational University of the Caribbean.
Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges.
Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena, through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme,[205] which is opened to all working age national population[206] and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities.
Jamaica is amixed economy with both state enterprises and private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy includeagriculture,mining,manufacturing, tourism,petroleum refining,financial andinsurance services.[85] Tourism and mining are the leading earners offoreign exchange. Half the Jamaican economy relies on services, with half of its income coming from services such as tourism. An estimated 4.3 million foreign tourists visit Jamaica every year.[12] According to theWorld Bank, Jamaica is an upper-middle income country that, like its Caribbean neighbours, is vulnerable to theeffects of climate change, flooding, and hurricanes.[11] In 2018, Jamaica represented theCARICOM Caribbean Community at theG20 and theG7 annual meetings.[207] In 2019 Jamaica reported its lowest unemployment rate in 50 years.[208]
Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation[209][210][211] Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalisation and stabilisation by removing exchange controls,[212][213] floating the exchange rate,[214][215] cuttingtariffs,[216] stabilising theJamaican dollar, reducinginflation[217] and removing restrictions onforeign investment.[215][218] Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership throughdivestment and privatisation programmes.[209][210][211] The free-trade zones at Kingston, Montego Bay and Spanish Town allow duty-free importation, tax-free profits, and free repatriation of export earnings.[219]
Post–independence
Jamaica's economy grew strongly after the years of independence,[219] but then stagnated in the 1980s, due to the heavy falls in price of bauxite and fluctuations in the price of agriculture.[219][85] The financial sector was troubled in 1994, with many banks and insurance companies suffering heavy losses and liquidity problems.[85][219] According to theCommonwealth Secretariat, "The government set up the Financial Sector Adjustment Company (Finsac) in January 1997 to assist these banks and companies, providing funds in return for equity, and acquired substantial holdings in banks and insurance companies and related companies..." but it only exasperated the problem, and brought the country into large external debt.[219] From 2001, once it had restored these banks and companies to financial health, Finsac divested them."[219] TheGovernment of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners.[217]
In 1996 and 1997 there was a decrease in GDP largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) and hurricane that drastically reduced agricultural production.[220] In 1997 and 1998, nominal GDP was approximately a high of about 8 percent of GDP and then lowered to 4½ percent of GDP in 1999 and 2000.[221] The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels ofimport growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in theforeign exchange market.[222]
Recent advancements
Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering.Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased to 5.5% in 2001 compared to the corresponding period in 2000, signalling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997.[223] In 2018, Jamaica reported a 7.9% increase incorn, 6.1% increase inplantains, 10.4% increase inbananas, 2.2% increase inpineapples, 13.3% increase indasheen, 24.9% increase incoconuts, and a 10.6% increase in wholemilk production.[224] Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December 1998, compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January's bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa.[225] Jamaica is the fifth-largest exporter of bauxite in the world, after Australia, China, Brazil and Guinea. The country also exportslimestone, of which it holds large deposits. The government is currently implementing plans to increase its extraction.[226]
Tourism industry
A beach inNegril with a hotel and restaurantJames Bond Beach inOracabessa
Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In 1999 the total visitor arrivals was 2 million, an increase of 100,000 from the previous year.[227] Since 2017, Jamaica's tourism has risen exponentially, rising to 4.3 million average tourists per year. Jamaica's largest tourist markets are from North America, South America, and Europe. In 2017, Jamaica recorded a 91.3% increase in stopover visitors from Southern and Western Europe (and a 41% increase in stopover arrivals from January to September 2017 over the same period from the previous year) with Germany, Portugal and Spain registering the highest percentage gains.[228] In 2018, Jamaica won several World Travel Awards in Portugal winning the "Chairman's Award for Global Tourism Innovation", "Best Tourist Board in the Caribbean" "Best Honeymoon Destination", "Best Culinary Destination", "World's Leading Beach Destination" and "World's Leading Cruise Destination".[229][230] Two months later, the Travvy Tourism Awards held in New York City, awarded Jamaica's Tourism Minister Edmund Bartlett, with the inaugural Chairman's Award for, "Global Tourism Innovation for the Development of the Global Tourism Resilience and Crisis Management Centre (GTRCM)". Bartlett has also won the Pacific Travel Writer's Association's award in Germany for the, "2018 Best Tourism Minister of the Year".[229][230][231]
Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. Theaviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount ofindustrial engineering,light manufacturing, includingmetal fabrication, metal roofing, and furnituremanufacturing. Food andbeverage processing,glassware manufacturing,software anddata processing,printing andpublishing,insurance underwriting,music and recording, and advancededucation activities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaicanconstruction industry is entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance.[236]
The Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) sector is guided by the National Commission on Science and Technology (NCST) and the Scientific Research Council (SRC). Both are under the direction of the Ministry of Science, Energy, and Technology.
Since the 1990s, the government has set an agenda to push the development of science and technology in Jamaica. Despite some successes, such as the growth of thenutraceutical industry, it has been difficult to translate the results into domestic technologies, products and services – largely because of national budgetary constraints. However, with Jamaica's improved fiscal space, coming out of its recentIMF programme, the government has pledged to increase expenditure on research and development.[237][238]
Jamaicans have made noteworthy scientific and medical contributions. Amongst these include the discovery ofkwashiorkor, the pioneer of treatments forpediatricsickle cell anemia and the invention of variousspacecraft support systems.
Thetransport infrastructure in Jamaica consists ofroadways,railways and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system.[85]
The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi) is paved.[239] TheJamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system offreeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres (21 mi) of freeway.[citation needed]
Railways in Jamaica no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres (169 mi) of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres (35 mi) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.[239] On 13 April 2011, a limited passenger service was resumed between May Pen, Spanish Town and Linstead.[240]
Air transport
AUS Airways aircraft landing at Montego Bay (2013)Norman Manley International Airport
Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in theshipping lane to thePanama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America andemerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives much traffic ofshipping containers. Thecontainer terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years.[241] Montego Freeport inMontego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.
There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel inSt. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point inClarendon, Port Kaiser inSt. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier inOcho Rios, and Boundbrook Port inPort Antonio.
To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses.[242] They are maintained by the Port Authority of Jamaica,[243] an agency of the Ministry of Transport and Works.[244][242]
Jamaica electricity production by sourceJamaica renewable electricity production by source
Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs.[239] Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found.[245] The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are fromMexico andVenezuela.
Jamaica's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located inOld Harbour. This facility has been further equipped with liquid natural gas capability and storage. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company,[246] the island's electricity provider) support the island's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power StationSaint James, the Rockfort Power StationSaint Andrew and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River.[247] A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton,Manchester.[248]
Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels (13,000 m3) of oil energy products per day,[245] including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. 30,000 barrels/day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston.[251]
Jamaica produces enormous quantities ofdrinking alcohol (at least 5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock intoanhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle.[252] The facility has since been purchased by West Indies Petroleum Ltd. and repurposed for petroleum distillates.
The country's two mobile operators –FLOW Jamaica (formerly LIME, bMobile and Cable and Wireless Jamaica) andDigicel Jamaica have spent millions in network upgrades and expansion. The newest operator, Digicel was granted a licence in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent FLOW (then Cable and Wireless Jamaica) monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely usedGSM wireless system, while a past operator, Oceanic (which became Claro Jamaica and later merged with Digicel Jamaica in 2011) opted for theCDMA standard. FLOW (formerly "LIME" – pre-Columbus Communications merger) which had begun withTDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM in 2002, decommissioned TDMA in 2006 and only utilised that standard until 2009 when LIME launched its 3G network.[254] Both operators currently provide islandwide coverage with HSPA+ (3G) technology. Currently, onlyDigicel offers LTE to its customers[255] whereas FLOW Jamaica has committed to launching LTE in the cities of Kingston and Montego Bay, places where Digicel's LTE network is currently only found in, in short order.
A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market,Flow Jamaica, laid a newsubmarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. Cable and Wireless Communications (parent company of LIME) acquired the company in late 2014 and replaced their brand LIME with FLOW.[256]FLOW Jamaica currently has the most broadband and cable subscribers on the island and also has 1 million mobile subscribers,[257] second to Digicel (which had, at its peak, over 2 million mobile subscriptions on its network).
Digicel entered the broadband market in 2010 by offering WiMAX broadband,[258] capable of up to 6 Mbit/s per subscriber. To further their broadband share post-LIME/FLOW merger in 2014, the company introduced a new broadband service called Digicel Play,[259] which is Jamaica's secondFTTH offering (after LIME's deployment in selected communities in 2011[260]). It is currently only available in the parishes of Kingston, Portmore and St. Andrew. It offers speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s down, 100 Mbit/s up via a pure fibre optic network. Digicel's competitor,FLOW Jamaica, has a network consisting ofADSL, Coaxial and Fibre to the Home (inherited from LIME) and only offers speeds up to 100 Mbit/s. FLOW has committed to expanding its Fibre offering to more areas in order to combat Digicel's entrance into the market.
It was announced that the Office and Utilities Regulations (OUR), Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (MSTEM) and the Spectrum Management Authority (SMA) have given approval for another mobile operator licence in January 2016.[261] The identity of this entrant was ascertained on 20 May 2016, when the Jamaican Government named the new carrier as Symbiote Investments Limited operating under the nameCaricel.[262] The company will focus on 4G LTE data offerings and will first go live in the Kingston Metropolitan Area and will expand to the rest of Jamaica thereafter.[citation needed]
The journalist and authorH. G. de Lisser used his native country as the setting for his many novels.[266] Born inFalmouth, Jamaica, de Lisser worked as a reporter for theJamaica Times at a young age and in 1920 began publishing the magazinePlanters' Punch.The White Witch of Rosehall is one of his better-known novels. He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican Press Association; he worked throughout his professional career to promote the Jamaican sugar industry.Roger Mais, a journalist, poet, and playwright wrote many short stories, plays, and novels, includingThe Hills Were Joyful Together (1953),Brother Man (1954), andBlack Lightning (1955).[267]
Sport is an integral part of national life in Jamaica and the island's athletes tend to perform to a standard well above what might ordinarily be expected of such a small country.[13] While the most popular local sport iscricket, on the international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well attrack and field athletics.[13][271]
Usain Bolt is widely considered the greatest sprinter of all time.
Association football andhorse-racing are other popular sports in Jamaica. Thenational football team qualified for the1998FIFA World Cup. Horse racing was Jamaica's first sport. Today, horse racing provides jobs for about 20,000 people including horse breeders, groomers, and trainers. Also, several Jamaicans are known internationally for their success in horse racing including Richard DePass, who once held the Guinness Book of World Records for the most wins in a day, Canadian awards winner George HoSang, and American award winners Charlie Hussey, Andrew Ramgeet, and Barrington Harvey.[275]
Race car driving is also a popular sport in Jamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across the country.[276]
TheJamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in theWinter Olympics, beating many well-established teams. Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively.Netball is also very popular on the island, with theJamaica national netball team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world.[277]
According toESPN, the highest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 wasJustin Masterson, starting pitcher for the baseball teamCleveland Indians in the United States.[280]
^Keegan, William F.;Hofman, Corinne L. (2017).The Caribbean before Columbus (ebook ed.). New York. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 10.ISBN9780190647353.
^Fuller, Harcourt; Torres, Jada Benn (2 January 2018). "Investigating the "Taíno" ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons".Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies.43 (1):47–78.doi:10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227.ISSN0826-3663.S2CID166204004.
^Madrilejo, Nicole; Lombard, Holden; Torres, Jada Benn (13 November 2014). "Origins of marronage: Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica's Accompong Town Maroons".American Journal of Human Biology.27 (3):432–437.doi:10.1002/ajhb.22656.ISSN1042-0533.PMID25392952.S2CID30255510.
^Samuel Eliot Morison,Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, 1942, pp. 653–54.Samuel Eliot Morison,Christopher Columbus, Mariner, 1955, pp. 184–92.
^Bev Carey,The Maroon Story: The Authentic and Original History of the Maroons in the History of Jamaica 1490–1880 (Kingston, Jamaica: Agouti Press, 1997), pp. 315–355.
^"Jamaican Culture". Jamaicans.com. 20 June 2014.Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved16 April 2015.
^Révauger, Cécile (October 2008).The Abolition of Slavery – The British Debate 1787–1840. Presse Universitaire de France. pp. 107–108.ISBN978-2-13-057110-0.
^Aiken, Wilson, Vogel, Garraway PhD, Karl, Byron, Peter, Eric (21 January 2007)."LETTER OF THE DAY: Biologists speak on Cockpit mining".University of the West Indies. University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.Archived from the original on 12 July 2010. Retrieved23 January 2019.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"High Andean Flamingos (Jamaica)". Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Germany).Archived from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved2 February 2019.
^E. Kofi Agorsah, "Archaeology of Maroon Settlements in Jamaica",Maroon Heritage: Archaeological, Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives, ed. E. Kofi Agorsah (Kingston: University of the West Indies Canoe Press, 1994), pp. 180–81.
^Craton, Michael.Testing the Chains. Cornell University Press, 1982, p. 70.
^Newman, Joanna (2019).Nearly the new world: the British West Indies and the flight from Nazism, 1933-1945. New York: Berghahn. p. 14.ISBN978-1-78920-334-9.OCLC1117311744.
^Jones, Terry-Ann.Jamaican Immigrants in the United States and Canada: Race, Transnationalism, and Social Capital. New York, NY: LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2008. 2–3; 160–3. Print.
^Savishinsky, Neil J. "Transnational popular culture and the global spread of the Jamaican Rastafarian movement." NWIG: New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 68.3/4 (1994): 259–281.
^Stephen D. Glazier,Encyclopedia of African and African-American Religions, 2001, p. 263.
^Paul Easterling, "The Ifa' Diaspora: The Art of Syncretism, Part 5 – Obeah and Myal" in[1]Archived 30 July 2019 at theWayback Machine (Afrometrics.org, 2017).
^Kaplan, Dana Evan (10 August 2012)."A Synagogue Drawn in the Sand".Haaretz.com.Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved7 April 2020 – via Haaretz.
^abcdef"Jamaica (Economy)".The Commonwealth. Official Commonwealth Website (UK).Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved23 February 2019.
^"Jamaica". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Archived from the original on 17 February 2019. Retrieved23 February 2019.
^McDavid, Hamilton (2003). "An Input-Output Analysis of the Jamaican Hospitality and Tourism Sector".Social and Economic Studies: Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies.52 (1):161–184.JSTOR27865318.
^Graham, Neville (14 April 2017)."New Cars To Light Up Dover".Jamaica Gleaner. Jamaica.Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved22 January 2019.
Hall, D. "Bounties European Immigration with Special Reference of the German Settlement at Seaford Town, Parts 1 and 2".Jamaica Journal, 8, (4), 48–54 and 9 (1), 2–9.
.svg)
_Destruction_of_the_Roehampton_Estate_January_1832.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_adult_male_2.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
