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Archaeological evidence showsJainism was a significant religion inBengal region during the early historic period.[1]
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Jain ideology in ancientBengal developed in two main phases: an early period (pre-Mauryan to 7th–8th century CE) and a later phase (post-Gupta to 13th century CE) marked by the emergence of local rulers. Early references toJainism in Bengal include the 4th-century BCEHatigumpha inscription, whereKing Khāravela ofKalinga, a Jain devotee, retrieved aJina image taken by aNanda ruler ofGangaridai, indicating possible Jain influence in the region.
Buddhist texts like theDivyavadana suggest Jainism's presence inPundravardhana (modernMahasthangarh,Bangladesh) by the time ofAshoka. Additionally, theBṛhatkathākośa recounts that Jain preceptorBhadrabahu, associated withSthulabhadra, was born in North Bengal, implying Jainism's roots in the area.[2] TheKalpa Sutra mentions Bhadrabahu's disciple, Godasa, who established branches inTāmralipta,Koṭivarṣa, and Puṇḍravardhana—regions that served as early Jain centers in Bengal.
Archaeological finds such as a Jain terracotta plaque fromMurshidabad (Maurya-Sunga period) and an inscription fromMathura (150 CE) referencing a Jain monk fromRāḍha suggest a well-established Jain presence by the 1st century CE. Discoveries like the terracotta figure ofNaigamesha inBurdwan further indicate Jainism's integration into local folk practices during theKuṣāṇa period.
By the early medieval era, Jainism likely persisted in areas likeKumariparvata, supported by regional monastic movements, particularly from the Tāmraliptikā branch.[3]
The next substantial evidence for the spread of Jainism in ancient Bengal is a copper-plate grant datedGupta Era year 159 (479 CE), found atPaharpur in Rajshahi,Bangladesh. Known primarily for itsPāla Buddhist monastery, this inscription marks the earliest archaeological Jain record in Bengal during the Gupta period (Dikshit, 1983). It documents an endowment by a Brahmin couple, Nāthaśarman and his wife Rāmī, who donated lands for the worship ofArhats at the Vaṭa-Gōhālī vihāra, overseen by disciples of theNirgrantha Śramaṇācārya Guhanadin from the pañchastūpa section ofKāśi.
The Vaṭa-Gōhālī vihāra likely corresponds to the present-day site of Paharpur. Despite limited Jain artefacts, the donation by a Brahmin couple for Jain worship illustrates notable religious tolerance in the region. The inscription implies Guhanadin's discipleship lineage and indicates his activity around the late 4th century CE, placing the foundation of the vihāra about 50 years prior.
The term pañchastūpa (five-stupa) sect is referenced in Digambara literature; eminent monks such asVirasena andJinasena were part of this sect.Harishena'sBṛhatkathākośa records the establishment of five stūpas atMathura, suggesting an early Digambara presence that possibly spread to Bengal. Other records from the period, such as theJagadishpur copper plate (448 CE), further illustrate Jain influence.
The Jagadishpur plate, acquired by theVarendra Research Museum in 1961, confirms land grants for the Mecikāmra siddhāyatana in Puṇḍravardhana and affiliated Jain religious structures. This siddhāyatana, potentially a Jain establishment, suggests North Bengal's Jain presence during the Gupta period, with donations from agrarian families. Together with records from Nāthaśarman and Rāmī's donation, these findings underscore Jainism's significant reach and support among diverse social classes in Bengal.[4]
Earlier scholars believed (Gupta, 1993–94) that Jainism nearly disappeared from ancient Bengal after the seventh century CE, withXuanzang’s travel account being the last evidence of its popularity. However, recent discoveries confirm that Jainism persisted and flourished in theRāḍha region of Bengal up to the twelfth or thirteenth century CE.
Xuanzang's account, from around 638 CE, indicates that Jainism retained a stronghold in Bengal during the seventh century, describing it as the dominant faith in two prominent regions:Pundravardhana in the north andSamatata in southeastern Bengal.
RegardingPundravardhana andSamatata, Xuanzang observed:
There were twenty Buddhist Monasteries and above 3000 Brethren by whom the “Great and Little Vehicles” were followed: the Deva Temples were 100 in number, and the followers of the various sects lived pell-mell, the Digambara Nirgranths being very numerous.
ForSamatata, Xuanzang noted:
It had more than 30 Buddhist Monasteries… There were 100 Deva Temples, the various sects lived pell-mell, and the Digambara Nirgranthas were very numerous.
Based on Xuanzang's descriptions, it can be inferred that during the post-Gupta period, Digambara Jain Nirgranths were more numerous than followers ofBuddhism and Brahmanical ideologies in both northern and southeastern Bengal. This prominence suggests that Jainism continued to thrive in Bengal, possibly due to sustained support from thePundravardhanīya andTāmraliptika Śākhās.[5]
Jainism was gradually overshadowed by theVajrayana Buddhist influence in thePāla strongholds of North Bengal, parts ofBihar, and theSamatata region. Without royal patronage and faced with strong Brahmanical and Buddhist religious currents, Jainism struggled to thrive independently. However, it did survive, particularly in the upland areas of Western Bengal, likely due to the support of the trading community.
TheDudhpani inscription, found inHazaribagh district,Jharkhand, mentions merchants travelling fromAyodhya toTamralipta and is dated paleographically to about the eighth century CE. Field surveys have also documented inscribed Jain images inPurulia,Bankura, andBurdwan districts. These inscriptions refer to donors and are dated to the ninth/tenth through twelfth/thirteenth centuries CE, suggesting sponsorship by the Jain mercantile community.
Unfortunately, no Pāla or Sena period epigraphic records from northern Bengal have been discovered to detail Jainism's spread. However, theBangarh inscription from the reign ofNayapala (c. 1042–58 CE) indirectly refers to Jain monks in theBangarh region. The inscription praises a Śaiva teacher, GuruMurtisiva, who defeated JainDigambara ascetics in religious debates:
śaśvat-pīta-digamva(mba)r-ārtha-viraha-bhrāntiṃ tiraskurvvatī kṛṣṇ-ādvaita-kathān-nirasya va(ba) huśo vṛddher abhāvaṃ guṇe
This indicates that Jainism persisted, albeit with diminished influence, in parts of Bengal and that Śaiva teachers competed with them to establish dominance.
Fieldwork reveals that from the eighth or ninth century onward, Jainism reached its peak in the plateau region of ancient Bengal, particularly inRāḍha (zones I & III). Isolated, resource-rich, and conducive to non-farming activities, this region likely drew Jain communities, whose members were involved in local trade and resource extraction. The area's archaeological wealth—temple complexes, sculptures, and architectural remains—suggests it was a thriving Jain center up to the thirteenth century CE.
Western Bengal's plateau region, known for its sparse forest cover and deposits of metals and minerals, may have been attractive to Jains, locally known asSaraks, for its economic potential. Local traditions of ironworking among tribes like theBhumij andAsura likely supplemented Jain mercantile interests in resource procurement and trade.
Notably, Beglar describes trade routes connectingTamluk withPatna and other regions, facilitating the movement of Jain merchants. He writes:
There would be a choice of several routes to Patna, the most direct route would be throughBishnupur,Bahulara,Sonatapan,Ekteswar,Chatna,Raghunathpur,Telkuppi,Jharia,Rajauli, andRajgir. … At every great obstacle, large cities sprang up, as attested by the remains aboutGhatal, Bishnupur, Telkuppi, and near Rajauli.
Jain sculptures with inscriptions in localised Gauḍī script have also been found, reflecting local patronage and recording the names of donors, such as “dānapati Śakalamagana” on a Tīrthaṅkara Ṛṣabhanātha image from Bhabanipur inPurulia, and “dānapati Sanadeva” on a Tīrthaṅkara Pārśvanātha image fromTumba. These inscriptions, though often in corrupt Sanskrit, document Jain patronage in the region.
One noteworthy early medieval Jain saint,Somadeva, author of theYaśastilakacampū, was originally from Bengal and mentions a Jain shrine atTamralipta in his writings. Further association of Jainism with Bengal appears in theVasantavilasa byBalachandra Suri (thirteenth century CE), which notes visits to Jain temples inLadha,Gauda, and other regions.
Jainism, thus, remained a major religious ideology in eastern India from the eighth century CE onwards. This is evident from the archaeological distribution of Jain sites and sculptural remains, especially across modern-day West Bengal.[6]
Jainism was wiped out from Bengal alongside Vajrayana, followingBakhtiyar Khalji's invasion of Bengal in 1204, which heralded the beginning ofIslamic rule in the region. However, Jainism saw a resurgence in the state followingMughal conquest, caused by migration of rich Jain merchant communities fromRajasthan and other parts of India toDhaka, the provincial capital ofBengal Subah to pursue commercial interests. The most consequential among these Jain immigrants was theJagat Seth family. TheNawabs of Bengal came to be increasingly dependent on the banking network of the Jagat Seths to pay revenues to the increasingly weakening Mughal emperor in Delhi. Around 1700s,Murshid Quli Khan, under the influence of Jagat Seth Manikchand, shifted the seat of power from Dhaka toMurshidabad, significantly close to theJain pilgrimage site ofSammed Shikhar, in order to tackle theMaratha incursions. This resulted in creation of Jain diaspora communities in Murshidabad & the surrounding city ofJiaganj-Azimganj.[7] After the establishment ofBritish rule in India, Jain merchants fromMarwari &Gujarati communities migrated toKolkata to avail better financial opportunities.[8]
Saraks are aJain ethnoreligious group found inWest Bengal,Jharkhand,Odisha,Bihar,Assam andBangladesh.[9] They have been followers ofJainism since ancient times; however, they were isolated and the Jain community in western, northern and southern India.
According to Ramesh Chandra Majumder, the Jain scholarBhadrabahu, the second Louhacharya and the author of Kalpa Sutra may have come from the Sarak community.[10] The Saraks were agriculturists and moneylenders having landed properties.
They have continued to remainvegetarian even though this practice is uncommon among other communities in the region. Saraks haveParshva as a favoured patron and recite theṆamōkāra mantra. The 24thTirthankaraMahavira visited this region according to theKalpa Sūtra.
The Saraks lost contact with Jains in the rest of India after its conquest byIkhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji. Contact with the DigambaraBundelkhand Jains was reestablished when theParwars Manju Chaudhary (1720–1785) was appointed the governor ofCuttack by theMaratha Empire.
In 2009, more than 165 Sarak Jains living in parts of West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand visited the ancient Jain pilgrimage center ofShravanabelagola. A special function to welcome the Sarak Jains was organised at Shravanabelagola.[11]
Owing to the influency of the Swetambar Jain Jagat Seth family in the economy and internal politics of 18th century Bengal, fiveOswal Jain merchant families - Nahars, Dudhorias, Naulakhas, Dugars, Kotharis from what is now modernRajasthan migrated and settled down in the cities ofMurshidabad andJiaganj-Azimganj.[12] By 1901, their numbers had grown up to 998. Sheherwali (meaning 'city dweller') Jains have adapted certainBengali Hindu customs while maintaining their own distinct identity. These Jains conducted trade insilk,muslin &ivory alongside banking & owned palatial mansions likeKathgola Palace.[13] One such Jain member,Bijoy Singh Nahar, worked up the ranks of the stateIndian National Congress to become West Bengal's Deputy Chief Minister underAjoy Mukherjee in 1971.
Following theBattle of Plassey, the centre of political power in Bengal shifted away from Murshidabad toCalcutta. This caused many Sheherwali Jains to migrate to the city. The conquest ofOudh broughtShrimal Jains fromLucknow to the city, alongside many more Oswal Jains fromMarwar, all of whom settled down in thecity's northern part. Here they made fortunes in mercantile activities, & most notably in jewellery business, hence came to be known as Johari Seth (Johari meaning 'jeweller', a title supposedly bestowed byLord Mayo to a Jain merchantBadridas Mukhim & Seth meaning 'merchant'). The opulence of the Johari Seth Jain community is testified by theCalcutta Jain temple.[14] The Johari Seth community has been stronglyanti-communist in a state which had been ruled bycommunists for34 years & has voted for theBJP since1991.[citation needed]
Most of the Bengali Jains now live in the Indian state ofWest Bengal.
| # | District | Total population | Jain population | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Kolkata | 4,496,694 | 21,178 | 0.47% |
| 2 | Haora | 4,850,029 | 9,699 | 0.20% |
| 3 | North 24 Parganas | 10,009,781 | 4,452 | 0.04% |
| 4 | Puruliya | 2,930,115 | 3,052 | 0.10% |
| 5 | Murshidabad | 7,103,807 | 3,037 | 0.04% |
| 6 | Bankura | 3,596,674 | 2,904 | 0.08% |
| 7 | Hugli | 5,519,145 | 2,160 | 0.04% |
| 8 | Koch Bihar | 2,819,086 | 1,869 | 0.07% |
| 9 | Darjiling | 1,846,823 | 1,840 | 0.10% |
| 10 | Barddhaman | 7,717,563 | 1,674 | 0.02% |
| 11 | Paschim Medinipur | 5,913,457 | 1,550 | 0.03% |
| 12 | Jalpaiguri | 3,872,846 | 1,461 | 0.04% |
| 13 | Uttar Dinajpur | 3,007,134 | 1,324 | 0.04% |
| 14 | Birbhum | 3,502,404 | 1,152 | 0.03% |
| 15 | South 24 Parganas | 8,161,961 | 972 | 0.01% |
| 16 | Maldah | 3,988,845 | 639 | 0.02% |
| 17 | Purba Medinipur | 5,095,875 | 574 | 0.01% |
| 18 | Dakshin Dinajpur | 1,676,276 | 323 | 0.02% |
| 19 | Nadia | 5,167,600 | 281 | 0.01% |
| West Bengal (Total) | 91,276,115 | 60,141 | 0.07% |
| Census year | % of total population |
|---|---|
| 1951 | 0.08% |
| 1961 | 0.08% |
| 1971 | 0.07% |
| 1981 | 0.07% |
| 1991 | 0.05% |
| 2001 | 0.07% |
| 2011 | 0.06% |
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