Jade is an umbrella term for two different types of decorative rocks used forjewelry orornaments. Jade is often referred to by either of two differentsilicate mineral names:nephrite (a silicate ofcalcium andmagnesium in theamphibole group of minerals), orjadeite (a silicate ofsodium andaluminum in thepyroxene group of minerals).[1] Nephrite is typically green, although may be yellow, white or black. Jadeite varies from white or near-colorless, through various shades of green (including an emerald green, termed 'imperial'), tolavender, yellow, orange, brown and black. Rarely it may be blue.Both of these names refer to their use as gemstones, and each has a mineralogically more specific name. Both the amphibole jade (nephrite) and pyroxene jade are mineral aggregates (rocks) rather than mineral species.
Nephrite was deprecated by theInternational Mineralogical Association as a mineral species name in 1978 (replaced bytremolite).[2] The name "nephrite" is mineralogically correct for referring to the rock. Jadeite is a legitimate mineral species, differing from the pyroxene jade rock. In China, the name jadeite has been replaced withfei cui, the traditional Chinese name for this gem that was in use long before Damour created the name in 1863.[3]
Jade is classified into three main types: Type A, Type B, and Type C. Type A jade refers to natural, untreated jadeite jade, prized for its purity and vibrant colors.[4] It is the most valuable and sought-after type, often characterized by its vivid green hues and high translucency. Type A jade is revered for its symbolism of purity, harmony, and protection in various cultures, especially in East Asia where it holds significant cultural and spiritual importance. Types B and C have been enhanced with resin and colourant respectively.
The English wordjade is derived (via Frenchl'ejade and Latinilia 'flanks, kidney area')[5] from the Spanish termpiedra de ijada (first recorded in 1565) or 'flank stone', from its reputed efficacy in curing ailments of theloins andkidneys.Nephrite is derived fromlapis nephriticus, a Latin translation of the Spanishpiedra de ijada.[6]
Jade was considered to be the "imperial gem" and was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items tojade burial suits. From the earliestChinese dynasties to the present, the jade deposits most used were not only those ofKhotan in the Western Chinese province ofXinjiang but other parts of China as well, such as Lantian,Shaanxi province. There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in small quarries and as pebbles and boulders in therivers flowing from theKuen-Lun mountain range eastward into theTakla-Makan desert area. The river jade collection is concentrated in theYarkand, the White Jade (Yurungkash) and Black Jade (Karakash) Rivers. From theKingdom of Khotan, on the southern leg of theSilk Road, yearly tribute payments consisting of the most precious white jade were made to the Chinese Imperial court and there worked intoobjets d'art by skilled artisans as jade had a status-value exceeding that ofgold orsilver. Jade became a favourite material for the crafting of Chinese scholars' objects, such as rests for calligraphy brushes, as well as the mouthpieces of someopium pipes, due to the belief that breathing through jade would bestow longevity upon smokers who used such a pipe.[8]
Jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, lavender, pink,orange, yellow, red, black, white, near-colorless and brown colors was imported fromBurma to China in quantity only after about 1800. The vivid white to green variety became known asfei cui (翡翠) or kingfisher jade, due to its resemblance to the feathers of the kingfisher bird.[9] That definition was later expanded to include all other colors that the rock is found in.[10][3] It quickly became almost as popular as nephrite and a favorite of Qing Dynasty's aristocracy, while scholars still had strong attachment to nephrite (white jade, or Hetian jade), which they deemed to be the symbol of a nobleman.
In the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had a special significance, comparable with that of gold anddiamonds in the West.[11] Jade was used for the finest objects and cult figures, and for grave furnishings for high-ranking members of the imperial family.[11] Due to that significance and the rising middle class in China, in 2010 the finest jade when found in nuggets of "mutton fat" jade – so-named for its marbled white consistency – could sell for $3,000 an ounce, a tenfold increase from a decade previously.[12]
The Chinese character 玉[13] (yù) is used to denote the several types of stone known in English as "jade" (e.g. 玉器, jadewares), such asjadeite (硬玉, 'hard jade', another name for 翡翠) andnephrite (軟玉, 'soft jade'). While still in use, the terms "hard jade" and "soft jade" resulted from a mistranslation by a Japanese geologist, and should be avoided.[14]
But because of the value added culturally to jades throughout Chinese history, the word has also come to refer more generally to precious or ornamental stones,[15] and is very common in more symbolic usage as in phrases like 拋磚引玉/抛砖引玉 (lit. "casting a brick (i.e. the speaker's own words) to draw a jade (i.e. pearls of wisdom from the other party)"), 玉容 (a beautiful face; "jade countenance"), and 玉立 (slim and graceful; "jade standing upright"). The character has a similar range of meanings when appearing as a radical as parts of other characters.
Jade in Japan was used for jade bracelets. It was a symbol of wealth and power. Leaders also used jade in rituals. It is the national stone of Japan.Examples of use in Japan can be traced back to the early Jomon period about 7,000 years ago. XRF analysis results have revealed that all jade used in Japan since the Jomon period is fromItoigawa.The jade culture that blossomed in ancient Japan respected green ones, and jade of other colors was not used. There is a theory that the reason why the meaning is that it was believed that the color of green enables the reproduction of fertility, the life, and the soul of the earth.
Dagger with jade hilt, India, 17th–18th century.Louvre
TheJaintemple ofKolanpak in theNalgonda district,Telangana,India is home to a 5-foot (1.5 m) highsculpture ofMahavira that is carved entirely out of jade. India is also noted for its craftsman tradition of using large amounts of greenserpentine orfalse jade obtained primarily from Afghanistan in order to fashion jewellery and ornamental items such as sword hilts and dagger handles.[17]
Today, it is estimated thatMyanmar is the origin of upwards of 70% of the world's supply of high-quality jadeite. Most of the jadeite mined in Myanmar is not cut for use in Myanmar, instead being transported to other nations, primarily inAsia, for use in jewelry and other products. The jadeite deposits found inKachinland, in Myanmar's northern regions is the highest quality jadeite in the world, considered precious by sources in China going as far back as the 10th century.
Jadeite in Myanmar is primarily found in the "Jade Tract" located in Lonkin Township in Kachin State in northern Myanmar which encompasses the alluvial region of the Uyu River between the 25th and 26th parallels. Present-day extraction of jade in this region occurs at the Phakant-gyi, Maw Sisa, Tin Tin, and Khansee mines. Khansee is also the only mine that produces maw sit sit, a kosmochlor-rich jade rock. Mines at Tawmaw and Hweka are mostly exhausted. From 1964 to 1981, mining was exclusively an enterprise of the Myanmar government. In 1981, 1985, and 1995, the Gemstone laws were modified to allow increasing private enterprise. In addition to this region, there are also notable mines in the neighboring Sagaing District, near the towns of Nasibon and Natmaw and Hkamti. Sagaing is a district in Myanmar proper, not a part of the ethic Kachin State.
Carved nephrite jade was the main commodity trade of an extensive prehistoric trading network connecting multiple areas in Southeast Asia. The nephrite jade was mined in eastern Taiwan by the animist Taiwanese indigenous peoples and processed mostly in thePhilippines by the animist indigenous Filipinos. Some were also processed inVietnam, while the peoples ofBrunei,Cambodia,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore, andThailand also participated in the massive animist-led nephrite jade trading network, where other commodities were also traded. Participants in the network at the time had a majority animist population. The maritime road is one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. It was in existence for at least 3,000 years, where its peak production was from 2000 BCE to 500 CE, older than the Silk Road in mainland Eurasia. It began to wane during its final centuries from 500 CE until 1000 CE. The entire period of the network was a golden age for the diverse animist societies of the region.[18][19][20][21][22]
Nephrite jade inNew Zealand is known aspounamu in theMāori language (often called "greenstone" inNew Zealand English), and plays an important role inMāori culture. It is considered ataonga, or treasure, and therefore protected under theTreaty of Waitangi, and the exploitation of it is restricted and closely monitored. It is found only in theSouth Island of New Zealand, known asTe Wai Pounamu inMāori—"The [land of] Greenstone Water", orTe Wahi Pounamu—"The Place of Greenstone".
Pounamutaonga increase inmana (prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations. These are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements.
Tools, weapons and ornaments were made of it; in particularadzes, the 'mere' (short club), and thehei-tiki (neck pendant). Nephritejewellery of Maori design is widely popular with locals and tourists, although some of the jade used for these is now imported fromBritish Columbia and elsewhere.[23]
Pounamu taonga include tools such as toki (adzes), whao (chisels), whao whakakōka (gouges), ripi pounamu (knives),scrapers, awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools includematau (fishing hooks) and lures, spear points, andkākā poria (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such asmere (short handled clubs); and ornaments such as pendants (hei-tiki,hei matau and pekapeka), ear pendants (kuru and kapeu), and cloak pins.[24][25]Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants (hei kakï) even after they were no longer used as tools.[26]
Jadeitepectoral from theMayan Classic period (195 mm or 7.7 in high)
Jade was a rare and valued material inpre-ColumbianMesoamerica. The only source from which the variousindigenouscultures, such as theOlmec andMaya, could obtain jade was located in theMotagua River valley inGuatemala.[27] Jade was largely anelite good, and was usually carved in various ways, whether serving as a medium upon whichhieroglyphs were inscribed, or shaped intosymbolicfigurines. Generally, the material was highly symbolic, and it was often employed in the performance ofideological practices andrituals.
Jade was first identified in Canada byChinese settlers in 1886 in British Columbia.[citation needed] At this time jade was considered worthless because the settlers were searching for gold.[citation needed] Jade was not commercialized in Canada until the 1970s. The mining business Loex James Ltd., which was started by two Californians, began commercial mining of Canadian jade in 1972.[28]
Mining is done from large boulders that contain bountiful deposits of jade. Jade is exposed using diamond-tipped core drills in order to extract samples. This is done to ensure that the jade meets requirements. Hydraulic spreaders are then inserted into cleavage points in the rock so that the jade can be broken away. Once the boulders are removed and the jade is accessible, it is broken down into more manageable 10-tonne pieces using water-cooled diamond saws. The jade is then loaded onto trucks and transported to the proper storage facilities.[29]
Russia imported jade from China for a long time, but in the 1860s its own jade deposits were found in Siberia. Today, the main deposits of jade are located in Eastern Siberia, but jade is also extracted in thePolar Urals and in theKrasnoyarsk territory (Kantegirskoye and Kurtushibinskoye deposits). Russian raw jade reserves are estimated at 336 tons.[30]Russian jade culture is closely connected with such jewellery production asFabergé, whose workshops combined the green stone with gold, diamonds, emeralds, and rubies.
In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a strong belief among manySiberians andMongolians, which stemmed from tradition, that jade was part of a class of sacred objects that had life.[31]
It was not until 1863 that French mineralogistAlexis Damour determined that what was referred to as "jade" could in fact be one of two differentminerals, eithernephrite orjadeite.[32]
Nephrite consists of a microcrystalline interlocking fibrous matrix of the calcium, magnesium-iron richamphibole mineral seriestremolite (calcium-magnesium)-ferroactinolite (calcium-magnesium-iron). The middle member of this series with an intermediate composition is calledactinolite (the silky fibrous mineral form is one form ofasbestos). The higher the iron content, the greener the colour. Tremolite occurs in metamorphosed dolomitic limestones, and actinolite in metamorphic greenschists/glaucophane schists.
Jadeite is a sodium- and aluminium-richpyroxene. The more precious kind of jade, this is a microcrystalline interlocking growth of crystals (not a fibrous matrix as nephrite is.) It only occurs in metamorphic rocks.
Both nephrite and jadeite were used fromprehistoric periods forhardstone carving. Jadeite has about the samehardness (between 6.0 and 7.0Mohs hardness) as quartz, while nephrite is slightly softer (6.0 to 6.5) and so can be worked with quartz or garnet sand, and polished with bamboo or even ground jade.[33] However nephrite is tougher and more resistant to breakage. Among the earliest known jade artifacts excavated from prehistoric sites are simple ornaments with bead, button, and tubular shapes.[34] Additionally, jade was used foradze heads,knives, and otherweapons, which can be delicately shaped.
As metal-working technologies became available, the beauty of jade made it valuable for ornaments and decorative objects.
Jade rock inspection with a portable UV LED flashlight inMandalay Jade Market, Myanmar.
The name Nephrite derives from the Greek word meaning "kidney". This is because in ancient times it was believed that wearing this kind of jade around the waist could cure kidney disease.[35]
Nephrite can be found in a creamy white form (known in China as "mutton fat" jade) as well as in a variety of light green colours, whereas jadeite shows more colour variations, including blue, brown, red, black, dark green, lavender and white.[36] Of the two, jadeite is rarer, documented in fewer than 12 places worldwide. Translucent emerald-green jadeite is the most prized variety, both historically and today. As "quetzal" jade, bright green jadeite fromGuatemala was treasured byMesoamerican cultures, and as "kingfisher" jade, vivid green rocks from Burma became the preferred stone of post-1800 Chinese imperial scholars and rulers. Burma (Myanmar) and Guatemala are the principal sources of modern gem jadeite. In the area ofMogaung in theMyitkyina District of Upper Burma, jadeite formed a layer in the dark-green serpentine, and has been quarried and exported for well over a hundred years.[17] Canada provides the major share of modern lapidary nephrite.
Jade may be enhanced (sometimes called "stabilized"). Some merchants will refer to these as grades, but degree of enhancement is different from colour and texture quality. In other words, Type A jadeite is not enhanced but can have poor colour and texture. There are three main methods of enhancement, sometimes referred to as the ABC Treatment System:[37]
Type A jadeite has not been treated in any way except surface waxing.
Type B treatment involves exposing a promising but stained piece of jadeite tochemical bleaches and/or acids and impregnating it with a clearpolymerresin. This results in a significant improvement of transparency and colour of the material. Currently,infrared spectroscopy is the most accurate test for the detection of polymer in jadeite.
Type C jade has been artificially stained or dyed. The effects are somewhat uncontrollable and may result in a dull brown. In any case, translucency is usually lost.
B+C jade is a combination of B and C: it has been both impregnated and artificially stained.
Type D jade refers to a composite stone such as a doublet comprising a jade top with a plastic backing.
Thejade trade in Myanmar consists of themining, distribution, and manufacture ofjadeite—a variety of jade—in the nation ofMyanmar (Burma). The jadeite deposits found in Myanmar's northern regions are the source of the highest quality jadeite in the world, noted by sources in China going as far back as the 10th century. Chinese culture places significant weight on the meaning of jade; as their influence has grown in Myanmar, so has the jade industry and the practice of exporting the precious mineral.
Myanmar produces upward of 70 percent of the world's supply of high-quality jadeite.[38][39] Most of the Myanmar's jadeite is exported to other nations, primarily Asian, for use in jewellery, art, and ornaments. The majority of the production is carried out byMyanma Gem Enterprise (MGE), a state-owned venture which has enough liquid assets to run itself for 172 years.[40]
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^abHunter, Sir William Wilson andSir Richard Burn.The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. 3. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, Henry Frowde Publishers (1907), p. 242
^Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751
^Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan’s relations with the Philippines date back millenia, so it’s a mystery that it’s not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.
^Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.
^Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.
^Hung, H. C.; Iizuka, Y.; Bellwood, P.; Nguyen, K. D.; Bellina, B.; Silapanth, P.; and Manton, J. H. (2007). "Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 19745–19750.
^Salt, Donn, 1992,Stone, Bone and Jade – 24 New Zealand Artists, David Bateman Ltd., Auckland.
^"Pounamu taonga".Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Archived fromthe original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved25 November 2010.
^Ceram, C. W. (1967).Gods, Graves, and Scholars: The Story of Archaeology. Translated by Garside, E. B.; Wilkins, Sophie (2nd ed.). New York:Alfred A. Knopf. p. 400.
^Liu, Li. "The Products of Minds as Well as Hands: Production of Prestige Goods in Neolithic and Early State Periods of China".Asian Perspectives 42(1):1–40, 2003, p. 2.
^Tay Thye Sun."The Changing Face of Jade"(PDF).Alumni Newsletter (3). Swiss Gemmological Institute:5–6. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 December 2018. Retrieved26 July 2019.
Rémusat, Abel, 1820.Histoire de la ville de Khotan: tirée des annales de la chine et traduite du chinois; Suivie de Recherches sur la substance minérale appelée par les Chinois Pierre de Iu, et sur le Jaspe des anciens.Abel Rémusat. Paris. L'imprimerie de doublet. 1820. 239 pp. Downloadable from:[1]
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