J. Howard Moore | |
|---|---|
 Moore,c. 1914 | |
| Born | John Howard Moore (1862-12-04)December 4, 1862 |
| Died | June 17, 1916(1916-06-17) (aged 53) |
| Resting place | Excelsior Cemetery,Mitchell County,Kansas, U.S. 39°23′48″N98°21′28″W / 39.3967018°N 98.3578033°W /39.3967018; -98.3578033 |
| Other names | "Silver tongue of Kansas" |
| Education | |
| Occupations |
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| Known for | Animal rights andethical vegetarianism advocacy |
| Notable work | The Universal Kinship (1906) |
| Spouse | |
| Relatives | Clarence Darrow (brother-in-law) |
| Signature | |
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John Howard Moore (December 4, 1862 – June 17, 1916) was an American zoologist, philosopher, educator, and social reformer. He is best known for his advocacy ofethical vegetarianism and his pioneering role in theanimal rights movement, both informed by his ethical interpretation ofDarwin'stheory of evolution. Moore's most influential work,The Universal Kinship (1906), outlined asentientist philosophy he termed the doctrine of Universal Kinship, arguing that ethical regard for animals—rooted in theGolden Rule—is essential to human moral progress. He urged the extension of moral concern to allsentient beings, based on their shared evolutionary and psychological continuity with humans.
A prominent figure during theProgressive Era, Moore was also active in the American humanitarian movement. He was a prolific author of articles, books, essays, and pamphlets on subjects including animal ethics,evolutionary biology,humane education,humanitarianism,socialism,temperance,utilitarianism, andvegetarianism. A frequent lecturer, he was widely recognized for his oratory skills and was nicknamed the "silver tongue of Kansas" for his speeches onprohibition.
Born nearRockville, Indiana, Moore spent his early years inLinden, Missouri. Raised in a Christian household that taught animals existed for human use, he later rejected bothChristianity andanthropocentrism after encountering Darwinian evolution during college. While studying zoology at theUniversity of Chicago, he adopted vegetarianism, embracedsocialism, co-founded the university's Vegetarian Eating Club, and won a national oratorical competition on prohibition. Moore became an active member of theChicago Vegetarian Society, modeled on the BritishHumanitarian League, which he also supported. In 1895, he delivered the speech "Why I Am a Vegetarian", later published by the society. He spent the remainder of his life teaching in Chicago while continuing to write and lecture.
Moore published his first book,Better-World Philosophy, in 1899, presenting what he saw as core moral problems and his vision for ethical reform. InThe Universal Kinship (1906), he introduced his doctrine of Universal Kinship, later expanded inThe New Ethics (1907). In response to an Illinois law requiring the teaching of morals in public schools, he authored educational materials, including two books and a pamphlet. He also wrote two works on evolution:The Law of Biogenesis (1914) andSavage Survivals (1916). After years of chronic illness and depression, Moore died by suicide at age 53 inJackson Park, Chicago.
John Howard Moore was born on December 4, 1862, nearRockville, Indiana.[note 1] He was the eldest of the six children of William A. Moore and Mary Moore (née Barger).[2]: 224 He had three brothers and two sisters.[5] When Moore was six months old, his family moved toLinden, Missouri.[3] Over the next 30 years, the family moved between Kansas, Missouri and Iowa.[6]
Moore had a Christian upbringing, which instilled in him the belief that humans were created by God to have dominion over the Earth and its inhabitants. Growing up on a farm, Moore enjoyed hunting, a pastime shared by those around him. He later reflected that he and his community viewed animals as existing for whatever purposes they deemed appropriate.[2]: 224
Moore studied at High Bank school in Linden until the age of 17, then attended a college inRock Port, Missouri, for one year.[3] He subsequently studied atOskaloosa College in Iowa from 1880 to 1884,[2]: 224 but did not graduate.[7]: 117 Moore continued his education atDrake University. His study of science introduced him to Darwin'stheory of evolution, leading him to reject Christianity in favor of an ethic based on Darwin's theory, which recognized theintrinsic value of animals independent of their value to humans.[2]: 224 Additionally, Moore studied law under C. H. Hawkins inCawker City, Kansas.[3]
In 1884, Moore was appointed as an examiner for the Board of Teachers inMitchell County, Kansas.[8] In 1886, he ran for a seat in theUnited States House of Representatives but finished last out of five candidates.[6] During this period, he adopted vegetarianism for ethical reasons.[2]: 224
In 1889, Moore was employed by the National Lecture Bureau, earning the nickname "silver tongue of Kansas" for his eloquent speeches. He was also described as a "youthfulLuther" and was celebrated for both his oratory and singing voice.[9] In the summer of 1890, he studied voice culture in singing and speaking at theChautauqua Institution inChautauqua, New York.[10] From 1890 to 1893, Moore delivered lectures in Kansas, Missouri, and Iowa.[2]: 224 He also gave lectures on behalf of theWoman's Christian Temperance Union.[11]
I came to the conclusion out there on the Kansas prairies that the animals were not treated right by human beings. I thought we had not even a right to kill them for food and came to the University of Chicago to study the matter. At that time I had never heard of vegetarianism.
In 1890, Moore published his first pamphlet,A Race of Somnambulists, criticizing what he saw as humanity's barbaric treatment of animals for food, sport, and fashion. He describedThanksgiving as a day of gluttony and merciless killing, unparalleled in cruelty. Despite this, Moore expressed hope for a future where people recognize the malevolence of these customs and treat animals kindly. He envisioned a societal and moral evolution that extended the same sympathy and fraternity that ended slavery and is now advancing women's rights to the humane treatment of animals.[2]: 224
During this period, he lived on a farm south of Cawker City and worked as a reporter forThe Beloit Daily Call, submitting rural correspondence about local events.[12]
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In 1894, Moore started at theUniversity of Chicago withadvanced academic standing.[6] He graduated in April 1896,[7]: 117 earning anA.B. degree inzoology.[13] While studying there, he became asocialist and served as vice president of the university's Prohibition Club.[2]: 224 He also co-founded its Vegetarian Eating Club,[14] serving as president in 1895 and the following year as purveyor.[note 2][2]: 224
In 1895, he won first honors in the prohibitions club's annual oratory contest with his speech "The Scourge of the Republic". That April, he represented the university at the state prohibition contest inWheaton, Illinois, where he also secured first place.[2]: 225 He continued his success by winning first honors at the national contest inCleveland.[16] A newspaper profile described Moore as a passionate supporter ofwomen's suffrage, noting his curly hair and soulful eyes.[2]: 225
Moore was an influential member of theChicago Vegetarian Society and theHumanitarian League, a British radical advocacy group. He modeled the Society as an American version of the League.[13]
In 1895, Moore addressed the Society with a speech later published asWhy I Am a Vegetarian and serialized in theChicago Vegetarian, the Society's journal, in 1897. He argued for universal solidarity amongsentient beings, explaining his refusal to eat meat as, "I never want happiness that gives another pain". Acknowledging the challenge of changing minds in a single lecture, he described the horror he felt towards the "barbarous, blood-sucking practices" of meat consumption, linking it to broader exploitation where some beings' interests are sacrificed for others' convenience. He urged ethical treatment for all beings and adoption of universal courtesy and love.[2]: 225
Favorable reviews appeared inThe Phrenological Journal of Science and Health in 1899 and 1900.Laurence Gronlund, a Danish-born American lawyer, lecturer, and political activist, wrote a pamphlet in response titledWhy I Am Not a Vegetarian: Why He is Wrong.[17] In reply to Gronlund's critique, Moore asserted that for a carnivore, "every meal is a murder" and argued that explaining why one is "not a vegetarian" is essentially an attempt to justify being a predatory animal.[18]
In 1898, Moore was given a full-page column in the Society's journal, theChicago Vegetarian, greatly expanding his influence. This platform allowed him to share his ideas regularly, significantly shaping the society's message and growth.[7]: 119
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After graduating from the University of Chicago in 1896, Moore accepted the chair of sociology atWisconsin State University,[19] lecturing on the topic ofsocial progress, before continuing to teach at the university.[6]
In 1898, Moore started teaching ethics and zoology atCrane Technical High School, a position he retained for the remainder of his life.[2]: 225 He also taught at other schools in Chicago, includingCalumet High School andHyde Park High School.[20] In 1908, Moore taught courses on elementary zoology, physiographic ecology and the evolution of domestic animals at the University of Chicago for three quarters.[6]
In 1909, a law was passed in Illinois prescribing teaching of morals in public schools for 30 minutes each week. Contrary to his fellow teachers, Moore was pleased by the law and began preparing supporting educational materials.[2]: 228–229
In February 1912, a meeting of the Schoolmasters' Club of Chicago, of which Moore was a member, was disrupted because they did not agree with his views; Moore responded: "I am a radical and a socialist, but I do not allow my radicalism nor my socialism to enter into my teachings."[8]
Moore opposed theChicago Board of Education's move to stop teachingsex hygiene, between 1913 and 1914. He wrote a letter to the board in favor of teaching the topic.[2]: 229 In January 1914, Moore gave a speech on the topic in Chicago, atHull House.[21] The Board later dropped the change.[2]: 229
In 1899, Moore published his first book,Better-World Philosophy: A Sociological Synthesis, which explores the interconnectedness of all living beings and the ethical implications ofsentience. The book argues for a shift away from anthropocentrism, proposing thatnatural selection could eventually lead to a more cooperative and altruistic society. Moore asserts that sentience is a fundamental requirement for ethical consideration, extending this argument to non-human animals, who, by virtue of their capacity for sentience, deserve moral regard. He also addresses the topic ofeugenics, a widely debated issue at the time, advocating against indiscriminate procreation and for controlled breeding. Furthermore, the book stresses the importance of teaching altruism from childhood, promoting a balance between self-love and love for others.[2]: 225
The book received mixed reviews, with critics noting Moore's strong and passionate writing style.[2]: 225 It was highly praised byLester Frank Ward, who commended its profound and independent thought, whileDavid Starr Jordan lauded its bright style and bold conclusions, recommending it as essential reading for students of social progress.[22]
In 1900, Moore publishedFermented Beverages: Their Effects on Mankind, examining the physiological, psychological, and social effects of alcohol. He discussed both its potential harms and benefits, questioned strict prohibitionist views, and advocated for evidence-based policies on alcohol use.[23]
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Moore publishedThe Universal Kinship in 1906.[2]: 226 In the book, he explored the ethical implications of Darwinism, investigating the physical, psychical and ethical relationship between humans and other animals, and demonstrating that humans and animals are mental and physical cousins.[24]: 386 Moore drew extensively on the works of evolutionary scientists, includingDarwin,Huxley,Haeckel,Romanes, andLubbock.[25]
Based on this relationship, Moore advocated for a profound change in how humans perceive and interact with animals.[2]: 226 He argued that the ethical treatment of animals was not only a moral duty but also an essential part of human ethical development, maintaining that true progress could be achieved only when humans extended moral consideration to all sentient beings, in keeping with theGolden Rule.[2]: 223–224
The book received several favourable reviews.[2]: 226 It was endorsed by notable figures, includingMark Twain,Jack London,[24]: 387 Eugene V. Debs,Mona Caird,Richard F. Outcault, andElla Wheeler Willcox.[26] It also received favorable mentions in British publications, includingThe Humanitarian,Reynold's Newspaper, and theManchester News.[26]
In 1907, Moore published, to acclaim,The New Ethics, in which he explored the expansion of ethics based on the biological implications of Darwin's theory of evolution. Moore accepted the challenge of changing anthropocentric perceptions, arguing that while such views have developed over the course of generations, both individuals and societies are in a state of constant growth and evolution. He expressed confidence that humans would evolve past their current stage of selfishness.[2]: 227
In 1912, Moore publishedEthics and Education, as an aid for teachers who were having trouble implementing the new Illinois educational requirements to teach morals. It discusses the necessity of teaching ethics in schools, addressing the physical, vocational, intellectual, and ethical anxieties involved in such education and advocates for an evolution in moral development that extends ethics to all sentient beings, encouraging teachers to instil values like compassion, imagination, and altruism to promote higher moral development in humanity.[2]: 228
Before the book's publication, Moore generated controversy when he made available extracts which were critical of the courts and marriage. In an interview, Moore defended the content of the book, inviting the Board of Education to investigate him if necessary.[2]: 228
In the same year, he publishedHigh-School Ethics: Book One, which was intended to form the first part of a four-year high school course covering theoretical and practical ethics and covered a variety of topics including the ethics of school life; properly caring for pets; women's rights; birds; where sealskin, ivory and other animal products are sourced from; and good habits.[2]: 228–229
Moore also published a pamphlet titledThe Ethics of School Life, which was based on a lesson that Moore gave to students at Crane Technical High School.[2]: 223
In 1914, Moore publishedThe Law of Biogenesis: Being Two Lessons on the Origin of Human Nature, a collection of 32 discourses originally developed as lectures for Crane Technical High School. The book includes an introduction by Mary Marcy, a radical socialist writer and the editor of theInternational Socialist Review.[2]: 229 In the book, Moore analyses the theory of physical and mentalrecapitulation, which he termed "biogenesis", defining it as the process by which beings repeat the evolutionary development of their ancestors.[27]
A reviewer forLife, in 1915, praised the book as an authoritative and straightforward summary that is engaging and encourages an educated perspective.[2]: 229
Moore publishedSavage Survivals in 1916, a compilation of 63 of his lectures delivered at Crane Technical High School. Made-up of five sections covering the evolution and survival of domesticated animals, the savage ancestry of humans and an analysis from an ethical perspective of those surviving traits in humans considered to be civilized. It also contains 27 illustrations by Roy Olson and L. F. Simmons.[2]: 229
F. Stuart Chapin's 1917 review in theAmerican Journal of Sociology commends the book for effectively presenting organic and social evolution for children and as a solid treatise on prehistoric human evolution, but notes that some anthropological research is outdated.[2]: 229–230
Moore independently authored numerous articles and pamphlets for humane organizations and journals,[24]: 385 including the Humanitarian League,Millennium Guild,Massachusetts SPCA,American Anti-Vivisection Society,American Humane Association,[13] and theOrder of the Golden Age.[28] Topics included the ethical and philosophical dimensions of vegetarianism, animal rights, and the human-animal relationship.[2]: 223 He also wrote in support of thetemperance movement[24]: 280 andhumane education.[2]: 223
Moore was a fierce critic ofAmerican imperialism and America's actions in thePhilippine–American War, publishing an article entitled "America's Apostasy", in 1899.[2]: 321 He asserted that the United States had abandoned its foundational principles of liberty and justice, likening American soldiers in the Philippines to British redcoats during theAmerican Revolution. He argued that the U.S. government's actions were hypocritical and tyrannical, replacing Spanish oppression with a worse form of imperialism. Moore called for a resurgence of true patriotism rooted in justice and humanity, decrying the moral decline and urging Americans to resist imperialistic tendencies and uphold the nation's original democratic ideals.[29]
In 1908, he denouncedTheodore Roosevelt and hishunting expedition to Africa in an article,[2]: 228 describing him as having "done more in the last six months to dehumanise mankind than all the humane societies can do to counteract it in years."[30] In another article, published in 1910, he described Roosevelt as a forceful personality with an intense obsession with killing.[24]: 535
In June 1916, Moore published an article in theInternational Socialist Review, entitled "The Source of Religion", arguing that religion is a uniquely human creation that originated in the early stages of human development when the mind was just beginning to explore the world. It claims that religion is an outdated concept that persists mainly due to tradition, as modern science has revealed that all things, including religion, have a natural origin. Moore suggested that as scientific understanding grows, the need for religion diminishes, ultimately rendering it obsolete."[31] The article provoked significant discussion.[8]
An obituary in theLos Angeles Times stated that Moore had completed a book titledThe Life of Napoleon, but it was never published.[32]
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Moore developed his oratory skills throughout his career as a teacher and public speaker. He frequently gave speeches, which were often printed and distributed as pamphlets or handed out for free. Moore discussed a variety of topics, including, the advantages of vegetarianism, the cruelty involved in wearing fur, the merits of socialist candidates, and issues related to animal rights, ethics, women's suffrage, hunting, war, and alcohol consumption. His dedication to these causes contributed to his eloquence, and he became known for his dramatic rhetorical style, which attracted significant attention.[2]: 223–224
In November 1906, Moore's speech "The Cost of a Skin" sparked controversy at theAmerican Humane Association's convention. In the speech, Moore denounced wearing fur and feathers for fashion as "conscienceless and inhumane". The audience reaction was mixed, with some applauding enthusiastically and others remaining silent; two women left the room before the speech was finished. The speech was later published as a chapter inThe New Ethics (1907), as a pamphlet by theAnimals' Friend Society of London,[2]: 226–227 and inThe Herald of the Golden Age.[33]
On October 25, 1908, Moore addressed theYoung People's Socialist League to endorse Eugene V. Debs for the U.S. presidency as theSocialist Party candidate.The Chicago Daily Tribune reported that Moore asserted Debs would target wealthy individuals for imprisonment rather than the usual victims who were populating prisons. Moore argued that young people represented the greatest potential for advancing socialism and noted that university students were particularly open to socialist teachings.[2]: 227
The Millennium Guild, founded in 1912 byEmarel Freshel, was the first animal rights society established in the United States.[34] In 1913, Moore was listed as a member of the Boston branch.[35]
In 1913, Moore delivered a speech at the International Anti-vivisection and Animal protection Congress, held in Washington D.C. In the speech, he claimed that vivisection and the consumption of meat are both a product of anthropocentrism and that Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species had made any notion of human superiority or uniqueness untenable and ethically indefensible.[2]: 229
In the early morning of June 17, 1916, at the age of 53, Moore died after shooting himself in the head with a revolver on Wooded Island inJackson Park, Chicago.[8] He had visited the island regularly to observe and study birds.[20]
Moore had struggled for many years with a long illness andchronic pain from an abdominal operation, in 1911, forgallstones.[8][20] He had also expressed continuing despondency at human indifference towards the suffering of their fellow animals.[24]: 387 [36] In a note found on his body by a police officer,[8] he had written to his wife:[2]: 230
The long struggle is ended. I must pass away. Good-by. Oh, men are so cold and hard and half conscious toward their suffering fellows. Nobody understands. O my mother, and O my little girl! What will become of you? And the poor four-footed! May the long years be merciful! Take me to my river. There, where the wild birds sing and the waters go on and on, alone in my groves, forever.[note 3] O, Tess,[note 4] forgive me. O, forgive me, please!
Moore's death was ruled a suicide, due to a "temporary fit of insanity".[2]: 230 His grief-stricken wife requested that Moore's body be cremated and his ashes sent toMobile County, Alabama, to be buried in the land which Moore owned.[32] His brother-in-law,Clarence Darrow, was devastated by Moore's death.[37]
A funeral service was held at Oakwood Chapel in Chicago on June 19.[3] Darrow delivered a eulogy, describing him as a "dead dreamer" who had died while "suffering under a temporary fit of sanity".[38] The eulogy was later published inThe Athena.[39] Moore's body was returned to his old home near Cawker City and a funeral service was held at Plainview Church nearby. He was buried alongside his father, who had died several years earlier, in Excelsior Cemetery,Mitchell County, Kansas.[3]
Moore married Louise Jesse "Jennie" Darrow on February 21, 1899, inRacine, Wisconsin.[3] She was the sister of attorney Clarence Darrow and worked as a schoolteacher.[note 5] She was also an advocate for animal rights and vegetarianism.[41] Both Moore and his wife were admirers of the character Tess fromThomas Hardy'sTess of the d'Urbervilles, and Moore affectionately referred to his wife as "Tess" as apet name.[8] He was also an enthusiast of the works ofAlexandre Dumas, which he first encountered at the Cawker City library.[8]
Howard Moore was one of the truest and tenderest of our friends, himself prone to despondency and, as his books show, with a touch of pessimism, yet never failing in his support and encouragement of others and of all humanitarian effort. "What on earth would we Unusuals do, in this lonely dream of life," so he wrote in one of his letters, "if it were not for the sympathy and friendship of the Few?"
Moore first came to the attention ofHenry S. Salt, co-founder of the Humanitarian League, and author ofAnimals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress, when he publishedBetter-World Philosophy in 1899. Salt reviewed the book and began a correspondence with Moore that developed into a strong friendship.[2]: 225
In a letter to Salt, Moore expressed his difficulty with writing, describing it as a demanding and agonising process, likening it to "sweating blood". He confessed to being overwhelmed by feelings of horror, which often left him immobilised and unable to write. Moore reflected on his situation, stating that he detested writing and believed he could be relatively content if not for the constant pressure to produce literary works.[2]: 227
On 25 March 1911, Moore wrote to Salt about his experience of depression and a breakdown caused by overwork. He mentioned that although the books he had written might not achieve much, he had put a great deal of effort into producing them.[2]: 228
In Salt's memoir, published in 1921, he expressed a belief that Moore had good reason for his suicide and was scornful of how timidly his death was covered in the majority of English animal advocacy journals.[42] Salt dedicated his 1923 bookThe Story of My Cousins to Moore and in his 1930 autobiographyCompany I Have Kept, he reflected on the strength of their friendship, despite the fact that they never met in person.[43]
Salt later described Moore'sThe Universal Kinship as the "best ever written in the humanitarian cause."[43] A selection of Moore's letters to Salt was included in the appendix of the 1992 edition, edited byCharles R. Magel.[43]
Moore was a close friend of May Walden Kerr, the wife ofCharles H. Kerr, who published many of Moore's books. Following the Kerr's divorce in 1904, Moore and Walden continued their correspondence and from time to time Moore and his wife vacationed with Walden and her daughter.[2]: 226
In 1885, Moore wasstruck by lightning, receiving burns to his arm and chest and temporarily losing his sight and capacity for speech. He recovered after six days of bed rest.[8] For the rest of his life, Moore suffered from severe headaches as a result of the injury.[3] He later published an account of the incident in theCawker City Public Record.[44]
Moore was an advocate ofwilderness preservation. In 1914, he purchased 116.5 acres of land in Alabama, nearMobile Bay. In a letter written on his birthday that year, he described his land as being filled with various trees. Moore envisioned his Alabama property as a sanctuary for wildlife and a place of enjoyment for people, stating in his will that the land should be preserved as it was. He described the area as remote, abundant with wildlife, and containing around a mile of water from a river and brook.[2]: 229
Yes, do as you would be done by—andnot to the dark man and the white woman alone, but to the sorrel horse and the gray squirrel as well;not to creatures of your own anatomy only, but toall creatures. You cannot go high enough nor low enough nor far enough to find those whose bowed and broken beings will not rise up at the coming of the kindly heart, or whose souls will not shrink and darken at the touch of inhumanity. Live and let live. Domore. Live andhelp live.Do to beings below you as you would be done by beings above you.
Moore's doctrine of Universal Kinship was a Darwinian secular philosophy grounded in the idea of shared evolutionary kinship among all sentient beings.[24]: 365 It was deeply rooted in the belief that humanity needed to undergo significant ethical evolution. Moore argued that although humans had made remarkable physical advancements, they remained stunted in their ethical development, particularly in their treatment of animals.[2]: 223–224
Moore, influenced by Darwinism, viewed moral anthropocentrism, which posits human superiority over other species, as the boldest and most revolting expression of human arrogance. Darwin's theory, which does not acknowledge the supremacy or special role of any species, led Moore to counter the idea of human centrality by asserting that "Man is not the end; he is but an incident, of the infinite elaboration of Time and Space", stressing that humans are not the central focus of existence.[46]
Moore argued that it is solely human "moral provincialism" which hinders them from regarding animals with the same consideration as humans. Just as prejudice towards different races and genders is condemned, Moore asserted that animals, being sentient and conscious, have the same entitlement as humans to fair treatment in ways that reduce their suffering and improve their well-being. He maintained that animals, similar to humans, should be viewed asends-in-themselves, not as means for our dietary or clothing indulgences, due to their capacity to suffer.[47] This ethical deficiency Moore saw in society was a source of profound despair for him and ultimately contributed to his decision to kill himself.[2]: 223–224
Central to Moore's philosophy was the application of the Golden Rule—treating others as one would wish to be treated—to all sentient beings. He envisioned a future where humanity would progress ethically, paralleling their physical evolution. He believed that one day, humans would come to understand the moral imperative to treat animals with kindness and respect, not as mere commodities. This ethical awakening would signify a major milestone in human evolution, reflecting a deep, universal kinship among all living beings.[2]: 223–224
The ideal relation of the inhabitants of the universe to each other, then, is that relation which will most actively conduce to the welfare of the universe; and the welfare of the universe means, not the welfare of any one individual or guild, but the welfare of all the beings who now inhabit it, and of those who shall come after—the welfare of that mighty and immortal personality who comprehends all species and continues from generation to generation—the Sentient Cosmos.
Moore advocated forsentientistutilitarianism.[note 6] He asserted that every sentient being in the universe has a moral relationship with others, where actions can be judged as right or wrong depending on their impact.Right actions are those that lead to happiness, welfare, or complete living, whilewrong actions result in misery, ill-being, or maladaptation. He held that this moral framework does not apply to the non-sentient universe, as it lacks the capacity for such relationships.[48]: 79–80 Based on this, he contended that without sentience in the universe, the concept of ethics would cease to exist.[49]
Moore contended that vegetarianism was not merely a dietary choice but a profound ethical stance rooted in compassion for all sentient beings. He believed that as humanity evolves in its understanding and empathy towards other forms of life, adopting vegetarianism becomes a moral imperative. In his view, this practice was the natural extension of an ethical framework that acknowledges the interconnectedness of all living creatures and their capacity for suffering. Thus, vegetarianism represented the ethical outcome of an evolving consciousness that recognizes the rights and dignity of all sentient life. Moore argued that this ethical evolution was deeply informed by the biological insights of Charles Darwin, contending that Darwin's revelations on evolution and the kinship of all creatures broadened the scope of ethics to include all sentient beings.[50]
Moore portrayed socialism as an inevitable outcome of human evolution, driven by the natural tendency of beings to cooperate rather than compete. He argued that, like earlyunicellular organisms that formed colonies to survive, human society is evolving towards greater collectivism, where the focus shifts from individualism to a more organized and harmonious social organism. Socialism, according to Moore, aimed to minimize the hereditary disadvantages imposed by the inanimate world and to create a more equitable society where the strong support the weak. He saw this as consistent with the broader evolutionary processes of the universe, suggesting that the eventual establishment of a socialist society is not only desirable but also inescapable as part of the natural progression of life.[48]: 228–230
When reporting Moore's suicide, theChicago Tribune labelled Moore a misanthrope. Relatives and friends, including his brothers-in-law Clarence and Everett Darrow, described his kind nature, unwavering dedication to universal justice, and deep enthusiasm for educating young people.[24]: 387 An obituary in the Humanitarian League's journalThe Humanitarian, described Moore as "one of the most devoted and distinguished humanitarians with whom the League has had the honor of being connected."[51]
Felix Ortt wrote about Moore's death in the Dutch animal protection magazineAndrocles, describing his contributions to humanitarian and vegetarian causes, and describing his own involvement in translating Moore's works, includingThe Universal Kinship, as well as their correspondence.[52] Louis S. Vineburg, who encountered Moore in early 1910 at aYoung People's Socialist League lecture, later published a personal recollection in theInternational Socialist Review.[2]: 230
Jack London, who had endorsedThe Universal Kinship, and in his personal copy of the book marked the passage: "All beings are ends;no creatures aremeans. All beings have not equal rights, neither have all men; butall have rights",[53] was greatly moved by Moore's death, writing at the head of a printed copy of Darrow's eulogy for Moore's funeral: "Disappointment like what madeWayland (Appeal to Reason) kill himself and many like me resign."[54]
Due to the sustained promotion and dissemination efforts of the Humanitarian League,George Bell & Sons andThe Animals Friend, Moore's views were generally more widely accepted and readily embraced in Britain than the United States.[55] Unlike the British humanitarian movement, the American movement never successfully took hold and followingErnest Crosby's death, in 1907, Moore represented the remainder of the movement, which meant that his death effectively ended it.World War I ultimately brought the end to the wider humanitarian movement.[7]: 341–342
Moore's advocacy of Darwinian arguments within the humanitarian movement were respected by contemporaries, but ultimately did not achieve widespread acceptance or significantly influence the movement after his death and his specific line of argument did not become central to the broader animal protection discourse of his time. After his death, no major figures or groups continued to champion his approach, leaving it as a relatively minor aspect of the movement's history.[24]: 387–388
In 1915, theInternational Socialist Review started excerpting Moore's works and continued to do so for the next three years. Following his death, various radical publications, including those of theIndustrial Workers of the World, also began to feature excerpts from his works, particularlySavage Survivals.[2]: 229–230
Several of Moore's works were translated into other languages:Savage Survivals andTheLaw of Biogenesis were translated into Croatian;Savage Survivals was translated into Chinese;[2]: 229–230 three of his books were translated into Dutch by Felix Ortt;[56]The Law of Biogenesis was translated into Slovak;[57] and four of his books were translated into Japanese by various anarchist and socialist translators, includingŌsugi Sakae,Sakai Toshihiko,Hitoshi Yamakawa, andYamakawa Kikue.[58]
Moore was largely neglected by scholars untilThe Universal Kinship was republished in 1992 by Charles R. Magel, which generated renewed interest.[2]: 230 Moore has since been described as an early advocate for ethical vegetarianism, whose contributions have been frequently overlooked.[59][47] Historian of animal rights and vegetarianismRod Preece noted that Moore's ethical vegetarian advocacy was ahead of its time, as there is no evidence of any direct effect on the American intelligentsia.[60] He also identified Moore, along with Thomas Hardy and Henry S. Salt, as writers before World War I, who connected Darwinian evolution withanimal ethics.[61]
Moore's ethical approach has been compared toAlbert Schweitzer andPeter Singer, with Moore's views identified as anticipating Singer's analysis ofspeciesism.[47] Donna L. Davey claims that the recurring themes in Moore's works now form the basis of the modernanimal rights movement.[2]: 230 James J. Copp characterises Moore as a key figure in advocating for the ethical treatment of animals in the early 1900s.[62] Bernard Unti contends that Moore's book,The Universal Kinship, establishes him as potentially the first American thinker in animal rights.[63] Animal rights activistHenry Spira cited Moore as an example of aleftist who wasn't uncomfortable about advocating for animal rights.[64]
Simon Brooman and Debbie Legge contend that Moore accurately foresaw that the treatment of animals in his era would be seen as entirely human-centric dominance, which would largely be supplanted by a new philosophy acknowledging the "unity and consanguinity" of all living organisms.[65] Environmental historianRoderick Nash argues that Moore andEdward Payson Evans merit more acknowledgment for being the first philosophers in the United States to go beyond anthropocentric views.[66]: 122
Selections of Moore's works were included inJon Wynne-Tyson's 1985 book,The Extended Circle: A Dictionary of Humane Thought.[67]Mark Gold cites Moore and Henry S. Salt as the two main inspirations for his 1995 book,Animal Rights: Extending the Circle of Compassion.[68]
Moore's last published book,Savage Survivals, has been criticized as an example of scientific racism by the prehistoric archaeologistRobin Dennell.[69] Mark Pittenger argues that Moore's racism was influenced byHerbert Spencer'sThe Principles of Sociology and that similar views were held by contemporary American socialists.[70] Gary K. Jarvis describes Moore as a critic of social Darwinism, asserting: "Moore argued that social Darwinists derived their beliefs from the worst examples that evolution offered, not the best."[7]: 208
Bernard Unti asserts that theChicago Tribune's unfavourable depiction of Moore as a misanthrope set a precedent followed by many historians attempting to position him within the context of Americanenvironmental ethics and that these interpretations often arise from limited analyses that do not consider Moore's broader critiques on human selfishness, his body of work, or his political ideology. Unti contends that Moore's views were not rooted in a disdain for humanity but rather in opposition to the domination of some humans over others and over animals. He was a committed socialist, dedicated to social justice for all, as demonstrated in his works, most of which were published by Charles H. Kerr, a prominent American socialist publisher and ethical vegetarian.[24]: 387 Gary K. Jarvis echoes this, arguing that Moore's criticism of anthropocentrism and Western civilization for promoting it was incorrectly perceived as misanthropic.[7]: 121
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