Italo Balbo | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Balbo in 1938–1940 | |
| Governor-General of Italian Libya | |
| In office 1 January 1934 – 28 June 1940 | |
| Monarch | Victor Emmanuel III |
| Prime Minister | Benito Mussolini |
| Preceded by | Office created |
| Succeeded by | Rodolfo Graziani |
| Minister of Aeronautics | |
| In office 12 September 1929 – 6 November 1933 | |
| Prime Minister | Benito Mussolini |
| Preceded by | Benito Mussolini |
| Succeeded by | Benito Mussolini |
| Quadrumvir in the Grand Council of Fascism | |
| In office 12 January 1923 – 28 June 1940 | |
| Member of theChamber of Deputies | |
| In office 24 May 1924 – 2 March 1939 | |
| Constituency | Emilia-Romagna |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1896-06-06)6 June 1896 Ferrara,Kingdom of Italy |
| Died | 28 June 1940(1940-06-28) (aged 44) Tobruk,Italian Libya |
| Political party | Italian Fasces of Combat (1919–1921) National Fascist Party (1921–1940) |
| Height | 1.74 m (5 ft 9 in) |
| Spouse | |
| Children | 3 |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Kingdom of Italy |
| Branch/service | MVSN Regia Aeronautica |
| Years of service | 1915–1940 |
| Rank | Maresciallo dell'Aria (Marshal of the Air Force) |
| Battles/wars | World War I: |
Italo Balbo (6 June 1896 – 28 June 1940) was anItalianfascist politician andBlackshirts' leader who served as Italy'sMarshal of the Air Force,Governor-General ofItalian Libya andCommander-in-Chief ofItalian North Africa. Due to his young age, he was sometimes seen as a possible successor to dictatorBenito Mussolini.
After serving inWorld War I, Balbo became the leadingFascist party organizer in his home region ofFerrara. He was one of theQuadrumvirs, the four principal architects (Quadrumviri del Fascismo) of theMarch on Rome that brought Mussolini and the Fascists to power in 1922, along withMichele Bianchi,Emilio De Bono andCesare Maria De Vecchi. In 1926, he began the task of building theItalian Royal Air Force and took a leading role in popularizing aviation in Italy, and promoting Italian aviation to the world. In 1933, perhaps to relieve tensions surrounding him in Italy, he was given the task of governing Italian Libya, where he resided for the remainder of his life. Balbo, hostile to antisemitism,[1] was among a minority of leading Fascists to oppose Mussolini'salliance with Nazi Germany.[2] Early inWorld War II, he was killed byfriendly fire when his plane was shot down overTobruk by Italian anti-aircraft guns who misidentified it.[3]
.jpg)
In 1896, Balbo was born in Quartesana (part ofFerrara) in theKingdom of Italy. Balbo was very politically active from an early age. At 14 years of age, he attempted to join in a Revolt in Albania underRicciotti Garibaldi,Giuseppe Garibaldi's son.[4]
AsWorld War I broke out and Italy declared its neutrality, Balbo supported joining the war on the side of theAllies. He joined in several pro-war rallies. Once Italy entered the war in 1915, Balbo joined theItalian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) as an officer candidate and served with theAlpini mountain infantry. His first assignment was with the Alpini Battalion "Val Fella",8th Alpini Regiment, before volunteering for flight training on 16 October 1917. A few days later the Austro-Hungarian and German armies broke the Italian lines in theBattle of Caporetto, and Balbo returned to the front, now assigned to the Alpini Battalion "Pieve di Cadore",7th Alpini Regiment, where he took command of an assault platoon. At the end of the war, Balbo had earned one bronze and twosilver medals for military valour and reached the rank ofCaptain (Capitano) due to courage under fire.[2]
After the war, Balbo completed the studies he had begun inFlorence in 1914–15. He obtained a law degree and a degree inSocial Sciences. His final thesis was written on "the economic and social thought ofGiuseppe Mazzini", and he researched under the supervision of the patriotic historianNiccolò Rodolico. Balbo was aRepublican, but he hated Socialists and the unions and cooperatives associated with them.[citation needed]
Balbo returned to his home town to work as a bank clerk. In 1920, Balbo was initiated in the regular Masonic Lodge "Giovanni Bovio", affiliated to theGran Loggia d'Italia. Subsequently, he received the degree of Orator in the Masonic Lodge"Girolamo Savonarola" in Ferrara,[5] joined by various other party officials.[6] He left the lodge on 18 February 1923,[7] just three days before the vote of theGrand Council of Fascism which forbade fascists to be members of the Freemasonry.
In 1921, Balbo joined the newly createdNational Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, or PNF) and soon became a secretary of the Ferrara Fascist organization. He began to organize Fascist gangs and formed his own group nicknamedCelibano, after their favorite drink. They broke strikes for local landowners and attackedcommunists andsocialists inPortomaggiore,Ravenna,Modena, andBologna. The group once raided theEstense Castle in Ferrara. Balbo had become one of theRas, adopted from anEthiopian title somewhat equivalent to aduke, of the Fascist hierarchy by 1922, establishing his local leadership in the party. TheRas typically wished for a more decentralized Fascist Italian state to be formed, against Mussolini's wishes.[8]
At 26 years of age, Balbo was the youngest of theQuadrumvirs: the four main planners of theMarch on Rome. The Quadrumvirs wereMichele Bianchi (age 39),Cesare Maria De Vecchi (38),Emilio De Bono (56), and Balbo. Mussolini himself (39) would not participate in the risky operation that ultimately brought Italy under Fascist rule.[9] In 1923, as one of the Quadrumvirs, Balbo became a founding member of the Grand Council of Fascism (Gran Consiglio del Fascismo). This same year, he was implicated in the murder of anti-Fascist parish priestGiovanni Minzoni inArgenta. He fled to Rome and in 1924 became General Commander of the Fascist militia and undersecretary for National Economy in 1925.
On 6 November 1926, though he had only a little experience in aviation, Balbo was appointed Secretary of State for Air. He went through an intensive course of flying instruction and began building the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica Italiana). On 19 August 1928, he became General of the Air Force and on 12 September 1929Minister of Aeronautics.
In Italy, this was a time of great interest in aviation. In 1925,Francesco de Pinedo flew aseaplane from Italy to Australia to Japan and back again to Italy.Mario De Bernardi successfully raced seaplanes internationally. In 1928, Arctic explorerUmberto Nobile piloted theairshipItalia on a polar expedition.
Balbo himself led sometransatlantic flights. The first was the 1930 flight of twelveSavoia-Marchetti S.55flying boats fromOrbetello Seaplane Base, Italy toRio de Janeiro, Brazil between 17 December 1930 and 15 January 1931.
TheCrociera del Decennale featured the so-called "Italian Air Armada." From 1 July to 12 August 1933, twenty-four seaplanes flew round-trip from Rome to theCentury of Progress in Chicago, Illinois. The flight had eight legs:Orbetello –Amsterdam –Derry –Reykjavík –Cartwright –Shediac –Montreal –Lake Michigan nearBurnham Park, Chicago – New York City.[10][11][12] In honor of this feat, Mussolini donated a column fromOstia to the city of Chicago: theBalbo Monument. It can still be seen along the Lakefront Trail, a little south ofSoldier Field. Chicago renamed the former 7th Street "Balbo Drive" and staged a great parade in his honour. The Newfoundland Post Officeoverprinted one of their 75-centairmail stamps, that had been issued just two months previously, for the event:[13] General Balbo Flight, Labrador, The Land of Gold.[14]
From Chicago, they flew to New York City with an escort of 36 U.S. airplanes. New York gave a warm welcome to the pilots onBroadway. Millions of people watched the parade of dozens of cars escorted by police horses along the streets of Manhattan.[15] Balbo was featured on 26 June 1933 cover ofTime.[16]
During Balbo's stay in the United States, PresidentFranklin Roosevelt invited him to lunch and presented him with theDistinguished Flying Cross.[17] He was awarded the 1931Harmon Trophy. TheSioux even honorarily adopted Balbo as "Chief Flying Eagle".[18] Balbo received a warm welcome in the United States, especially from the large Italian-American populations in Chicago and New York City. To a cheering mass inMadison Square Garden, he said: "Be proud you are Italians. Mussolini has ended the era of humiliations."[19] The term "Balbo" entered common usage to describe any large formation of aircraft.
The return flight from New York stopped inShoal Harbour atClarenville,Newfoundland, on 26 July. A road overlooking the bay used by the flying boats was renamed Balbo Drive, a name it still carries today. On 12 August 1933, Balbo's formation departed Clarenville for the Azores, Lisbon, and Rome.[20]Back home in Italy, he was promoted to the newly created rank ofMarshal of the Air Force (Maresciallo dell'Aria).
Following his return to Italy, Balbo proposed his vision for a reorganised Italian army. Balbo advocated that the army be reduced to twenty divisions, of which there would be ten motorised, five Alpine and five armoured, all well-equipped, trained and prepared for amphibious warfare, while the navy would have three marine divisions. The idea was that the army would become an expeditionary force that could rapidly deploy by sea or train to Italy's borders (including Libya). However, such a proposal was financially impossible as it would require an unprecedented increase in the defence budget.[21]
 | This articlemay need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia'squality standards, as section.You can help. Thetalk page may contain suggestions.(February 2015) |
On 7 November 1933, Balbo was appointedGovernor-General of the Italian colony ofLibya. Mussolini looked to the flamboyant Air Marshal to be thecondottiero of Italian ambition and extend Italy's new horizons in Africa. Balbo's task was to assert Italy's rights in the indeterminate zones leading toLake Chad from Tummo in the west and fromKufra in the east towards theSudan. Balbo had already made a flying visit toTibesti. By securing the "Tibesti-Borku strip" and the "Sarra Triangle", Italy would be in a good position to demand further territorial concessions in Africa fromFrance and Britain. Mussolini even had his sights set on the formerGerman colony ofKamerun. From 1922, the colony had become theLeague of Nations mandate territories ofFrench Cameroun andBritish Cameroons. Mussolini pictured anItalian Cameroon and a territorial corridor connecting that territory to Libya. An Italian Cameroon would give Italy a port on the Atlantic Ocean, the mark of a world power. Ultimately, control of theSuez Canal and ofGibraltar would complete the picture.[22]
As of 1 January 1934,Tripolitania,Cyrenaica andFezzan were merged to form the new colony and Balbo moved to Libya. At that stage, Balbo had apparently caused bad blood in the party, possibly because of jealousy and individualist behaviour. Being appointed Governor-General of Libya was an effective exile from politics in Rome where Mussolini considered him a threat,[2] both for his fame and, more importantly, because of his close relationship with the possibly anti-fascistCrown Prince Umberto. Italian newspapers reportedly could not mention Balbo's name more than once a month.[23] "Benito in Balboland," an article in 22 March 1937 issue ofTime Magazine, played with the conflict between Mussolini and Balbo. Balbo was still well known in the United States for his visit to the Century of Progress exhibition.[24] While Governor, Balbo ordered Jews who closed their businesses on the Sabbath to be whipped.[25][26] Balbo commissioned theMarble Arch to mark the border between Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. It was unveiled on 16 March 1937.
In 1935, as the "Abyssinia Crisis" worsened, Balbo began preparing plans to attackEgypt and Sudan. As Mussolini made his intentions toinvade Ethiopia clear, relations between Italy and the United Kingdom became more tense. Fearing a "Mad Dog" act by Mussolini against British forces and possessions in theMediterranean, Britain reinforced its fleet in the region and also its military forces in Egypt. Balbo reasoned that, should Britain choose to close the Suez Canal, Italian troop transports would be prevented from reachingEritrea andSomalia. Thinking that the planned attack on Abyssinia would be crippled, Balbo asked for reinforcements in Libya. He calculated that such a gesture would make him a national hero and restore him to the centre of the political stage. The7th Blackshirt Division (Cirene) and 700 aircraft were immediately sent from Italy to Libya. Balbo may have received intelligence concerning the feasibility of advancing into Egypt and Sudan from the famous desert researcherLászló Almásy.[27]
By 1 September 1935, Balbo secretly deployed Italian forces along the border with Egypt without the British knowing anything about it. At the time, British intelligence concerning what was going on in Libya was woefully inadequate. In the end, Mussolini rejected Balbo's over-ambitious plan to attack Egypt and Sudan and London learned about his deployments in Libya from Rome.[28]
The "Anglo-Italian Agreement" of April 1938 brought a temporary cessation of tensions between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Italy. For Balbo, the agreement meant the immediate loss of 10,000 Italian troops; it was characterised by renewed promises of undertakings that Mussolini had previously broken and he could easily break again. By the time of the "Munich Crisis", Balbo had his 10,000 troops back.[29]
At this time, Italian aircraft were making frequent overflights of Egypt and Sudan and Italian pilots were being familiarised with the routes and airfields. In 1938 and 1939, Balbo himself made a number of flights from Libya across the Sudan toItalian East Africa ('Africa Orientale Italiana', or AOI). He even flew along the border between AOI andBritish East Africa (modernKenya). In January 1939, Balbo was accompanied on one of his flights by GermanColonel-GeneralErnst Udet.[29]
There were distinct signs of German military and diplomatic cooperation with the Italians. General Udet was accompanied by the Head of the German Mechanization Department, and the German military attache to Rome paid a long visit to Egypt. A German Military Mission was present inBenghazi and German pilots were engaged in navigational training flights.[29]
Balbo began road construction projects such as theVia Balbia in an attempt to attract Italian immigrants to Libya. He also made efforts to drawMuslims into the Fascist cause. In 1938, Balbo was the only member of the Fascist regime who strongly opposed the new legislation against theJews, theItalian "Racial Laws".
In 1939, after the Germaninvasion of Poland, Balbo visited Rome to express his displeasure at Mussolini's support for German dictatorAdolf Hitler. Balbo was the only Fascist of rank to publicly criticize this aspect of Mussolini's foreign policy. He argued that Italy should side with the United Kingdom, but he attracted little following to his argument. When informed of Italy's formal alliance withNazi Germany, Balbo exclaimed: "You will all wind up shining the shoes of the Germans!"[2]
At the time of the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, Balbo was the Governor-General of Libya andCommander-in-Chief ofItalian North Africa (Africa Settentrionale Italiana, or ASI). He became responsible for planning aninvasion of Egypt. After the surrender of France, Balbo was able to shift much of the men and material of the Italian Fifth Army on the Tunisian border to theTenth Army on the Egyptian border. While he had expressed many legitimate concerns to Mussolini and to MarshalPietro Badoglio, theChief-of-Staff in Rome, Balbo still planned to invade Egypt as early as 17 July 1940.
On 28 June 1940, Balbo was a passenger on aSavoia-Marchetti SM.79 headed for the Libyan airfield ofTobruk, arriving shortly after the airfield had been attacked by British aircraft. Italian anti-aircraft batteries defending the airfield misidentified the aircraft as British, opening fire upon it as it attempted a landing. It was downed and all on board perished.
Eyewitness General Felice Porro reported that the cruiserSan Giorgio, serving as a floating anti-aircraft battery, began firing on Balbo's aircraft, followed by the airfield's anti-aircraft guns.[30] It remains unclear which of them ultimately led to his aircraft being downed.
Rumours that Balbo was assassinated on Mussolini's orders have been conclusively debunked.[31][32][33][34] Instead, it is generally accepted that Balbo's aircraft was simply misidentified as an enemy target,[2] as it was flying low and coming in against the sun, in addition to the fact of its arrival shortly after an aerial attack by BritishBristol Blenheims.[35]
Upon hearing of the death of Balbo, the Commander-in-Chief of theRAF Middle East Command ordered an aircraft dispatched to fly over the Italian airfield to drop a wreath, with the following note of condolence:
The British Royal Air Force expresses its sympathy in the death of General Balbo – a great leader and gallant aviator, personally known to me, whom fate has placed on the other side. [signed]Arthur Longmore[36]
Balbo's remains were buried outsideTripoli on 4 July 1940. In 1970, Balbo's remains were brought back to Italy and buried inOrbetello by Balbo's family afterMuammar Gaddafi threatened to disinter the Italian cemeteries in Tripoli.[citation needed]
.jpg)
In 1933, Benito Mussolini presented the city of Chicago with a monument to Balbo. Balbo Drive is a well-known street in the heart of downtown. In 2017, a campaign was launched to rename it.[37][38] After encountering opposition, the city instead elected to rename another street,Congress Parkway, in honour ofIda B. Wells, a leading Chicago journalist, anti-lynching activist and suffragette.[39]
In post-fascist Italy, most monuments and streets named after Balbo during the Fascist Regime reverted to their pre-fascist names, such as inPalermo, liberated by the Allies in July 1943, where Piazza Italo Balbo reverted to its former name, Piazza Bologna, or were named after anti-fascist partisans, such as in Sanremo, where "Via Italo Balbo" was renamed after partisan Luigi Nuvoloni.[40]
Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of the Crown of Italy
Knight Grand Cross of theColonial Order of the Star of Italy
Gold Medal of Military Valor (posthumous)
Silver Medal of Military Valor (first award)Silver Medal of Military Valor (second award)
War Merit Cross (two awards)
Commemorative Medal for the Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912
Commemorative Medal for the Italo-Austrian War 1915–1918 (four years of campaign)
Commemorative Medal of the Unity of Italy 1848–1918
Medal of Merit for the Volunteers of the Italo-Austrian War 1915–1918
Allied Victory Medal
Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome (Gold)
Commemorative Medal of the Fiume Expedition
Commemorative Medal for Military Operations in East Africa
Commemorative Medal of the Decennial Air Cruise
Gold Medal of Merit of theItalian Red Cross
Cross for Length of Service in the Voluntary Militia for National Security
HonoraryCorporal of theVoluntary Militia for National Security
Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of Pope Pius IX (Holy See, 1 December 1937)
Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion (Sovereign Military Order of Malta, 1939)_BAR.svg)
Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of the White Lion (Czechoslovakia, 4 May 1933)
Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of the German Eagle (Nazi Germany)
Pilot/Observer Badge (Nazi Germany)
| Awards and achievements | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Cover of Time Magazine 26 June 1933 | Succeeded by |
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by | Commander-in-Chief ofItalian North Africa andGovernor-General ofItalian Libya 1 January 1934 to 28 June 1940 | Succeeded by |
Members of theMussolini Cabinet | ||
|---|---|---|
| Head of government andduce of Fascism |  | |
| Minister of Aeronautics (since 1925) | ||
| Minister of Foreign Affairs | ||
| Minister of Agriculture (abolished in 1923) | ||
| Minister of Agriculture and Forestry (since 1929) | ||
| Minister of the Colonies (abolished in 1937) | ||
| Minister of Italian Africa (since 1937) | ||
| Minister of Communications (since 1924) | ||
| Minister of Corporations (since 1926) | ||
| Ministry of Popular Culture (since 1937) | ||
| Minister of the Interior | ||
| Minister of Domestic Economy | ||
| Minister of Domestic Education | ||
| Minister of Finance | ||
| Minister of Justice and Affairs of Religion | ||
| Minister of Industry and Commerce | ||
| Minister of Public Works | ||
| Minister of War | ||
| Minister of Labour and Social Security | ||
| Minister of Posts and Telegraphs | ||
| Minister of War Production (since 6 February 1943) | ||
| Minister of Public Education | ||
| Minister of Trades and Currencies | ||
| Minister of Press and Propaganda | ||
| Minister of Freed Territories from Enemies (abolished on 5 February 1923) | ||
| Minister of Treasure (merged into Ministry of Finance on 31 December 1922) | ||
