Roman historianCato the Elder described Italy as the entire peninsula south of theAlps, which he said formed the "walls of Italy".[79][80] In the 260s BCE, Roman Italy extended from theArno andRubicon rivers to the entire south. The northern area ofCisalpine Gaul was occupied by Rome in the 220s BC and became considered geographically andde facto part of Italy,[81] but remained politically andde jure separated untilOctavian legally merged it into the administrative unit of Italy in 42 BCE.[82][83][84][85][86] Under EmperorDiocletian, Italy was further enlarged to include the three big islands of the westernMediterranean Sea:Sicily (with theMaltese archipelago),Sardinia, andCorsica.[87][88] All its inhabitants were consideredItalic andRoman.[89]
The Latin termItalicus was used to describe "a man of Italy" as opposed to aprovincial from the greater Roman provinces.[90] The Greeks likewise used terms such asἸταλικοί (Italikoi) andἸταλιώτης (Italiotes) to refer to the peoples and inhabitants of Italy.[91][92] The adjectiveItalianus emerged in themedieval period and was used as an alternative alongsideItalicus into theearly modern period.[93]
TheCapitoline Wolf (Italian:Lupa Capitolina) is abronze sculpture depicting a scene from the legend of thefounding of Rome. The sculpture shows ashe-wolf suckling the mythical twin founders of Rome,Romulus and Remus. The image of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus is a symbol of Rome since ancient times, and one of the most recognizable icons of ancient mythology.[96]
From the 11th century on, Italian cities rapidly grew in independence and importance, becoming centers of political life,banking, and foreign trade. Many, includingFlorence,Rome,Genoa,Milan,Pisa,Siena andVenice, grew into nearly independent city-states andmaritime republics, each with its own foreign policy and trade. By the 14th and 15th centuries, some Italian city-states, such as Venice and Florence, ranked among the most influential powers in Europe.[citation needed] The Italian merchant cities acted as a gateway for goods and ideas from the Byzantine andIslamic world into Europe; theRenaissance began in Florence in the 14th century[101] and led to an unparalleled flourishing of the arts, literature, music, and science.
The Italian explorerChristopher Columbus leads an expedition to the New World, 1492.His voyages are celebrated as the discovery of the Americas from a European perspective, and they opened anew era in the history of humankind and sustained contact between the two worlds.Amerigo Vespucci, Italian explorer from whose name the term "America" is derived[102]
TheFrench Revolution began in 1789 and immediately found supporters among the Italian people. After theFrench king was overthrown and France became arepublic, secret clubs favouring an Italian republic were formed throughout Italy.[citation needed] In 1796,Napoleon Bonaparte led a French army into northern Italy and drove outits Austrian rulers. Napoleon made himself emperor in 1804; parts of northern and central Italy were unified under the name of the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as king, the rest was annexed by France.[citation needed] French domination, which lasted less than 20 years, brought representative assemblies and new laws that were uniform across the country; for the first time since ancient Rome, Italians from different regions were using the same money and served in the same army. Many Italians began to see the possibility of a united Italy free of foreign control.[citation needed]
Italian troops occupied Rome in 1870, and in July 1871, it formally became the capital of the kingdom.[citation needed]Pope Pius IX, a longtime rival of Italian kings, stated he had been made a "prisoner" inside theVatican walls and refused to cooperate with the royal administration. Only in 1929 did the pope accept the unified Italy withRome as its capital.
Due to historic demographic shifts in theItalian peninsula throughout history, its geographical position in the center of theMediterranean Sea, and Italy's regional ethnic diversity since ancient times, modern Italians are genetically diverse.[110][111]
Neolithic Europe c. 4500 BC. TheCardium Pottery people and theLinear Pottery people were derived from a singlemigration from Anatolia into the Balkans, which then split into two and expanded northward and westward further into Europe.
During the Iron Age, prior to Roman rule, Italy was predominantly inhabited byItalic tribes. The peoples living in the area of modern Italy and the islands were:
By the beginning of theIron Age, theEtruscans had emerged as the dominant civilization on the Italian peninsula. The Etruscans, expanded fromEtruria over a large part of Italy, covering what is nowTuscany, westernUmbria, and northernLazio,[130][131] as well as what are now thePo Valley,Emilia-Romagna, south-easternLombardy, southernVeneto, and westernCampania.[132][133][134][135][136] Ancient authors reportseveral hypotheses for the origin of the Etruscans, including that they came from the Aegean Sea. Modern archaeological and genetic research concluded that the Etruscans wereautochthonous and had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors, notably lacking recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean.[137][138][139][140][141][142]
The Ligures were one of the oldest populations in Italy and Western Europe,[143] possibly of Pre-Indo-European origin.[144] According to Strabo, they were not Celts but later became influenced by the Celtic culture of their neighbours, and thus are sometimes referred to as Celticized Ligurians or Celto-Ligurians.[145] Their language had similarities to bothItalic (Latin and theOsco-Umbrian languages) andCeltic (Gaulish).[146][147][148] They primarily inhabited the regions ofLiguria,Piedmont, northernTuscany, westernLombardy, westernEmilia-Romagna and northernSardinia, but are believed to have once occupied an even larger portion of ancient Italy as far south asSicily.[149][150] They were also settled inCorsica and in theProvence region along the southern coast of modernFrance.
Beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greeks arrived in Italy and founded cities along the coast of southern Italy and eastern Sicily, which became known asMagna Graecia ("Greater Greece"). The Greeks were frequently at war with the native Italic tribes, but nonetheless managed toHellenize and assimilate much of the indigenous population located along eastern Sicily and the Southern coasts of the Italian mainland.[151][152] According toBeloch, the number of Greek citizens in southern Italy reached only 80,000 to 90,000 at most, while the local people subjected by the Greeks were between 400,000 and 600,000.[153][154] By the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, Greek power in Italy was challenged and began to decline, and many Greeks were pushed out of peninsular Italy by the nativeOscan,Brutti, andLucani tribes.[155]
Duel of Lucanian warriors, fresco from a tomb of the 4th century BC
TheGauls crossed the Alps andinvaded northern Italy in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, settling in the area that became known asCisalpine Gaul. Although named after the Gauls, the region was mostly inhabited by indigenous tribes, namely the Ligures, Etruscans,Euganei, and Veneti. Estimates by Beloch andBrunt suggest that in the 3rd century BCE, Gaulish settlers in north Italy numbered between 130,000 and 140,000 out of a total population of about 1.4 million.[154][156] The northern half of Cisalpine Gaul was already inhabited by the CelticLepontii since the Bronze Age. Speaking about the Alpine region, the Greek historianStrabo, wrote:
TheAlps are inhabited by numerous nations, but allKeltic with the exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life.[145]
According toPliny andLivy, after the invasion of the Gauls, some of the Etruscans living in the Po Valley sought refuge in the Alps and became known as theRaeti.[157][158] The Raeti inhabited the region ofTrentino-Alto Adige, as well as easternSwitzerland andTyrol in westernAustria. TheLadins of north-eastern Italy and theRomansh people of Switzerland are said to be descended from the Raeti.[159]
The Cispadane peoples occupy all that country which is encircled by the Apennine Mountains towards the Alps as far as Genua and Sabata. The greater part of the country used to be occupied by the Boii, Ligures, Senones, andGaesatae; but since the Boii have been driven out, and since both the Gaesatae and the Senones have been annihilated, only the Ligurian tribes and the Roman colonies are left.[163]
TheBoii, the most powerful and numerous of the Gallic tribes, were expelled by the Romans after 191 BCE and settled inBohemia, while theInsubres still lived inMediolanum in the 1st century BCE.[164]
Latin colonies were founded atAriminum in 268 BCE and atFirmum in 264 BCE,[165] while large numbers ofPicentes, who previously inhabited the region, were moved toPaestum and settled along the riverSilarus inCampania. Between 180 and 179 BCE, 47,000 Ligures belonging to the Apuani tribe were removed from their home along the modern Ligurian-Tuscan border and deported toSamnium, an area corresponding to inland Campania, while Latin colonies were established in their place atPisa,Lucca andLuni.[166] Such population movements contributed to the rapid Romanization and Latinization ofItaly.[167]
Lombard (Northern Italian) colonies of Sicily: in light blue: the cities where Gallo-Italic language is spoken today. In dark blue: the cities where there is a good influence of the Gallo-Italic language. In purple: ancient Gallo-Italic colonies, the influence in these cities is variable, also some districts ofMessina were colonized.
A large Germanic confederation ofSciri,Heruli,Turcilingi, andRugians, led byOdoacer, invaded and settled Italy in 476 CE.[168] They were preceded by theAlemanni, including 30,000 warriors with their families, who settled in the Po Valley in 371 CE,[169] and byBurgundians who settled between Northwestern Italy and Southern France in 443 CE.[170] The Germanic tribe of theOstrogoths led byTheodoric the Great conquered Italy and, in order to legitimize their rule to Roman subjects who believed in the superiority of Roman culture over foreign "barbarian" culture, created a blendedRomano-Germanic culture.[171] Since Italy had a population of several million, the Goths did not constitute a significant addition to the local population: at most, several thousand Ostrogoths in a population of 6 or 7 million.[170][172][173] After theGothic War, which devastated the local population, the Ostrogoths were defeated. Nevertheless, according to Roman historianProcopius of Caesarea, the Ostrogothic population was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty.[174]
In the sixth century, another Germanic tribe known as theLongobards invaded Italy, which in the meantime had been reconquered by the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Longobards were a small minority compared to the roughly 4 million inhabitants of Italy at the time.[175] They were later followed by theBavarians and theFranks, who conquered and ruled most of Italy. Some groups ofSlavs settled in parts of the northern Italian peninsula between the 7th and 8th centuries,[176][177][178] whileBulgars led byAlcek settled inSepino,Bojano, andIsernia. These Bulgars preserved their speech and identity until the late 8th century.[179]
Following Roman rule, Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia were conquered by theVandals, then by the Ostrogoths, and finally by the Byzantines. Sicily was later invaded by theArabs in the 9th century and theNormans in the 11th century, leading to the formation of a uniqueNorman-Arab-Byzantine culture in Sicily. During the subsequentSwabian rule under the Holy Roman EmperorFrederick II, who spent most of his life asking of Sicily in his court inPalermo, Moors were progressively eradicated until the massive deportation of the lastMuslims of Sicily.[180] As a result of the Arab expulsion, many towns across Sicily were left depopulated. By the 12th century,Swabian kings granted immigrants from northern Italy (particularlyPiedmont,Lombardy andLiguria),Latium andTuscany in central Italy, andFrench regions ofNormandy,Provence andBrittany (all collectively known asLombards.)[181][182] settlement into Sicily, re-establishing the Latin element into the island, a legacy which can be seen in the manyGallo-Italic dialects and towns found in the interior and western parts of Sicily, brought by these settlers.[183] Before them, otherLombards arrived inSicily, with an expedition departed in 1038, led by the Byzantine commanderGeorge Maniakes,[184] which for a very short time managed to snatch Messina andSyracuse fromArab rule. The Lombards who arrived with the Byzantines settled inManiace,Randazzo andTroina, while a group ofGenoese and otherLombards from Liguria settled inCaltagirone.[185] After the marriage between the NormanRoger I of Sicily andAdelaide del Vasto, descendant of theAleramici family, many Northern Italian colonisers (known collectively asLombards) left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions inPiedmont andLiguria (then known asLombardy), to settle on the island of Sicily.[186][187] It is believed that the Lombard immigrants in Sicily over a couple of centuries were a total of about 200,000.[188][189][190] An estimated 20,000Swabians and 40,000Normans settled in the southern half of Italy during the 10th and 11th centuries.[191] Additional Tuscan migrants settled in Sicily after the Florentine conquest of Pisa in 1406.[192]
Some of the Muslims expelled by the Normans were deported toLucera (Lugêrah, as it was known in Arabic). Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000,[193] leading Lucera to be calledLucaera Saracenorum because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of theAngevinCharles II of Naples. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery,[194] with many finding asylum inAlbania across theAdriatic Sea.[195] After the expulsions of Muslims in Lucera, Charles II replaced Lucera's Saracens with Christians, chieflyBurgundian andProvençal soldiers and farmers,[196] following an initial settlement of 140 Provençal families in 1273.[197] A remnant of the descendants of these Provençal colonists, still speaking aFranco-Provençal dialect, has survived until the present day in the villages ofFaeto andCelle di San Vito.
Giuseppe Mazzini(left), highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement; andGiuseppe Garibaldi(right), celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times[198] and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds",[199] who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led toItalian unification
Substantial migrations of Lombards to Naples, Rome, and Palermo continued in the 16th and 17th centuries, driven by the constant overcrowding in the north.[200][201] Minor but significant settlements ofSlavs andArbereshe in Italy have been recorded, whileScottish soldiers - theGarde Ecossaise - who served the French King,Francis I, settled in the mountains ofPiedmont.[202][203]
The geographical and cultural proximity with Southern Italy pushed Albanians to cross theStrait of Otranto, especially afterSkanderbeg's death and the conquest of theBalkans by theOttomans. In defense of the Christian religion and in search of soldiers loyal to the Spanish crown,Alfonso V of Aragon, also king of Naples, invited Arbereshe soldiers to move to Italy with their families. In return the king guaranteed to Albanians lots of land and a favourable taxation.[citation needed]
Arbereshe and Schiavoni were used to repopulate abandoned villages or villages whose population had died in earthquakes, plagues and other catastrophes. Albanian soldiers were also used to quell rebellions in Calabria. Slavic colonies were established in easternFriuli,[204]Sicily[205] andMolise (Molise Croats).[206]
Between theLate Middle Ages and theearly modern period, there were several waves of immigration of Albanians into Italy, in addition to another in the 20th century.[207] The descendants of these Albanian emigrants, many still retaining theAlbanian language, theArbëresh dialect, have survived throughout southern Italy, numbering about 260,000 people,[208] with roughly 80,000 to 100,000 speaking the Albanian language.[209][210]
Most ofItaly's surnames (cognomi), with the exception of a few areas marked by linguistic minorities, derive from Italian. Many are derived from an individual's physical qualities (e.g.Rossi,Bianchi,Quattrocchi,Mancini,Grasso, etc.), occupation (Ferrari,Auditore,Sartori,Tagliabue, etc.), fatherhood or lack thereof (De Pretis,Orfanelli,Esposito,Trovato, etc.), and geographic location (Padovano,Pisano,Leccese,Lucchese, etc.). Some of them also indicate a remote foreign origin (Greco,Tedesco,Moro,Albanese, etc.).
Italian migration outside Italy occurred over centuries in a series of migration cycles.[212] A largediaspora took place after Italy's unification in 1861 and continued through 1914 with the lead up to theFirst World War.[213][214] One major motivation for emigrants at this time was a post-unification economic slump within Italy (except for the "industrial triangle" betweenMilan,Genoa andTurin)[213] that coincided with a boom in industrialization, urbanization, and economic expansion elsewhere in the world, which provided better economic opportunities.[214] Large-scale emigration continued through the late 1920s, well into the Fascist regime, and a subsequent wave was observed after the end of theSecond World War. Another wave of migration outside Italy began in the 21st century and is still ongoing, caused by thedebt crisis in Italy.
Over 80 million people claiming full or partial Italian descent live outside Italy. A majority of these, about 50 million total, live inSouth America.Brazil has the largest number of Italian descendants outside Italy,[63] and inArgentina, over 62.5% of the country's population has at least one Italian ancestor.[6] Another 23 million Italian descendants live in North America (United States andCanada), 7 to 8 million in other parts of Europe (primarily inFrance,Germany,Switzerland, andthe United Kingdom), and another 1 million in Oceania (Australia andNew Zealand). To a lesser extent, people of full or partial Italian descent are also found in Africa (particularly in the former Italian colonies ofEritrea,[218][219][220]Somalia,Libya, andEthiopia; and in others countries such asSouth Africa,[5]Tunisia, andEgypt), in the Middle East (such as theUnited Arab Emirates with 10,000 Italian immigrants), and in Asia (Singapore is home to a sizeable Italian community).[5]
World map of first level subdivisions (states, counties, provinces, etc.) that are home toLittle Italys or Italian neighbourhoods
There are many individuals of Italian descent in the diaspora who may be eligible for Italian citizenship byjus sanguinis, which is from the Latin meaning "by blood". Simply having Italian ancestry is not enough to qualify for Italian citizenship; one must have at least one Italian-born citizen ancestor who, after emigrating from Italy to another country, had passed citizenship onto their children before they naturalized as citizens of their newly adopted country. The Italian government does not have a rule regarding how many generations born outside of Italy can claim Italian nationality.[221]
Italy became a seat of learning in 1088 with the establishment of theUniversity of Bologna, the firstuniversity and theoldest in continuous operation.[230][231][232][233] TheSchola Medica Salernitana, in southern Italy, the first medical school in Europe, and many other centers of higher education followed.[234] The EuropeanRenaissance began in Italy and was powered by leading Italian painters, sculptors, architects, scientists, literature authors, and music composers. Italy continued to influence European cultural throughout theBaroque period and into the Romantic period, with a strong Italian presence in music.
The country contains several world-famous cities.Rome was the capital of the ancient Roman Empire, the seat of the Pope of the Catholic Church, and the capital of reunified Italy.Florence was the heart of theRenaissance.[235]Turin, which used to be the capital of Italy, is a center of automobile engineering.[citation needed]Milan is the industrial and financial capital of Italy and one of the world'sfashion capitals.[citation needed]Venice's intricate canal system attracts tourists from all over the world especially during theVenetian Carnival and theBiennale.[citation needed]Naples has the largest historic city center in Europe and theworld's oldest continuously active public opera house.[citation needed] Due to its relatively late national unification and the historical autonomy of the regions that comprise the Italian peninsula, many Italian traditions and customs can be identified by their regions of origin.
Italian literature had a significant influence on Western philosophy, from the ancient Greeks and Romans, to the Rinascimento, to theEnlightenment, to modern philosophy.
Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in Rome.[243] The Romans were famous for their poets, dramatists, orators, philosophers, and historians; important figures includedPliny the Elder,Pliny the Younger,Virgil,Horace,Propertius,Ovid, andLivy.[244]
Alessandro Manzoni is famous for the novelThe Betrothed (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.[246] He contributed to the nationwide use of the Italian language.[247]
The legal and social status of Italian women has undergone rapid transformations and changes during the past decades. This includes family laws, the enactment of anti-discrimination measures, and reforms to the penal code (in particular with regard to crimes of violence against women).[251] After World War II, women were given the right to vote in 1946 Italian institutional referendum. The new Italian Constitution of 1948 affirmed that women had equal rights. It was not however until the 1970s that women in Italy scored some major achievements with the introduction of laws regulating divorce (1970), abortion (1978), and the approval in 1975 of the new family code. Today, women have the same legal rights as men in Italy, and have mainly the same job, business, and education opportunities.[252]
Since the Roman Empire, most western contributions to Western legal culture was the emergence of a class of Roman jurists.[clarification needed] During the Middle Ages,Saint Thomas Aquinas integrated the theory of natural law with the notion of an eternal and Biblical law.[253] During the Renaissance, ProfessorAlberico Gentili, the founder of the science ofinternational law, authored the first treatise on public international law, and separated secular law from canon law and Catholic theology.[citation needed]Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists,Cesare Beccaria,Giambattista Vico andFrancesco Mario Pagano, are remembered for their legal works, particularly on criminal law.[citation needed]Francesco Carrara, an advocate of abolition of the death penalty, was one of the foremost European criminal lawyers of the 19th century.[citation needed] During the last periods, numerous Italians have been recognised as prominent prosecutor magistrates.[citation needed]
In the post-World War II period, Italy saw a transformation from an agriculture-based economy, which had been severely affected by the consequences of theWorld Wars, into one of the world's leading countries inworld trade and exports.[257] Italy is the seventh-largestmanufacturing country,[258] characterised by manysmall and medium-sized enterprises, with fewer global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size. Italy is a large manufacturer[259] and exporter[260] ofmachinery,vehicles,pharmaceuticals, furniture, food, clothing, and other products.[261]
Roman art was influenced bythe art of ancient Greece, but Roman painting does have unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings arewall paintings, many from villas inCampania, in Southern Italy. Such paintings can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods[262] and may contain the first examples oftrompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.[263] Panel painting became more common in Italy during theRomanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantineicons.[citation needed]Medieval art andGothic painting trended towards realism, with interest in the depiction of volume and perspective, notably byCimabue and then his pupilGiotto.[citation needed]
In the 15th and 16th centuries, theHigh Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known asmannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised the early Renaissance, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt.[citation needed] The unperturbed faces and gestures ofPiero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions ofPontormo and the emotional intensity ofEl Greco.[citation needed][tone]
Several instruments associated withclassical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy; and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as thesymphony, concerto, andsonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.Italian opera was founded in the early 17th century in cities such asMantua andVenice, and has been influential on the Western opera tradition.[264]
The traditions ofItalian theatre have their origins in theancient Greek colonies ofMagna Graecia inSouthern Italy[267] and the theatre of theItalic peoples andancient Rome.[268] During theMiddle Ages, Italian theatre was expansive, comprising the dramatization of Catholic liturgies, the court performances of jesters, the songs oftroubadours, and public city festivals.[269]Renaissance theatre was marked by a resurgence of the classics; ancient theatrical texts were re-discovered, translated from Latin to Italian, and performed. The cities ofFerrara andRome played a prominent role in the rediscovery and renewal of theatrical art in the fifteenth century.[270]
From the 16th to 18th century,commedia dell'arte was a popular form ofimprovisational theatre.[274] Traveling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide entertainment in the form ofjuggling,acrobatics, and humorous plays calledcanovaccio.[274] Actors improvised the performance from loose scenarios calledlazzi, that provided the basic situation and plot. Actors relied on a repertoire ofstock characters, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of falsebravado.[274]
Theballet dance genre also originated in Italy. It began during the Italian Renaissance as a form of entertainment at court weddings.[275][276] At first, ballets were woven into the midst of an opera, providing the audience a moment of relief from the opera's dramatic intensity. By the 17th century, Italian ballets were performed in their entirety in between the acts of an opera, and had become a popular dance form in their own right by the 1800s.[277]
In chemistry,Giulio Natta, the inventor of the first catalyst for the production of isotactic propylene, received the 1963 Nobel prize for Chemistry along withKarl Ziegler, for their work on highpolymers.[citation needed]
"Not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces".[321]
"For her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general."[325]
"For his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons."[327]
"For his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles."[328]
"For his distinctive poetry which, with great artistic sensitivity, has interpreted human values under the sign of an outlook on life with no illusions."[334]
"For his decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction."[335]
One of the main characteristics of Italian cuisine is its simplicity, with many dishes made up of few ingredients, and therefore Italian cooks often rely on the quality of the ingredients, rather than the complexity of preparation.[354][355] The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people moreso than bychefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and dailycooking.[356][357][358]
Milan, Florence, and Rome are Italy's mainfashion capitals.[359] Although most of the oldest Italian couturiers are based in Rome, Milan is seen as the fashion capital of Italy because many well-known designers are based there and it is the venue for the Italian designer collections. Major Italian fashion labels, such asGucci,Armani,Prada,Versace,Curiel,Valentino,Dolce & Gabbana,Missoni,Fendi,Moschino,Max Mara,Trussardi,Benetton, andFerragamo, to name a few, are regarded among the finest fashion houses in the world. Accessory and jewelry labels, such asBulgari,Luxottica, andBuccellati were founded in Italy and are internationally acclaimed. The fashion magazineVogue Italia is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.[360]
Rugby union was imported from France in the 1910s and has been regularly played since the 1920s. By the 1990s, when theItalian national team managed to beat historically dominant teams likeScotland,Ireland, andFrance, Italy gained admission to the Five Nation Championship, which had to be renamedSix Nations as a result.[citation needed] Italy has taken part in theRugby World Cup since its inauguration in 1987 and never missed an edition, although to date it has never progressed past the group stage.[citation needed]
Giacomo Agostini, the most successful motorcyclist in the history of the World Championship[367]
^abDepartamento de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas de laUniversidad Nacional de La Matanza (14 November 2011)."Historias de inmigrantes italianos en Argentina".infouniversidades.siu.edu.ar (in Spanish).Se estima que en la actualidad, el 90% de la población argentina tiene alguna ascendencia europea y que al menos 25 millones están relacionados con algún inmigrante de Italia.
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^Encyclopædia Britannica, 1993 ed., Vol. 16, pp. 605ff / Morison,Christopher Columbus, 1955 ed., pp. 14ff
^abMcGaw Smyth, Howard (September 1948). "Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943–1946)".The Western Political Quarterly.1 (3):205–222.doi:10.2307/442274.JSTOR442274.
^Raveane, Alessandro; Montinaro, Francesco; Capelli, Cristian (2019)."Un ritratto genetico degli italiani". Scienza in rete.Archived from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved4 November 2019.
^Saupe et al. 2021 "The results suggest that the Steppe-related ancestry component could have first arrived through Late N/Bell Beaker groups fromCentral Europe."
^Kruta, Venceslas (1991).The Celts. Thames and Hudson. pp. 89–102.
^Stifter, David (2008).Old Celtic Languages - Addenda. p. 25.
^Nicholas Hammond, Howard Scullard. Dizionario di antichità classiche. Milano, Edizioni San Paolo, 1995, p.1836-1836.ISBN88-215-3024-8.
^"ELMO CELTICO".ARCHEOLOGIA GALLIA CISALPINA (in Italian). Retrieved20 March 2022.
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^Leighton, Robert (2004).Tarquinia. An Etruscan City. Duckworth Archaeological Histories Series. London: Duckworth Press. p. 32.ISBN0-7156-3162-4.
^Camporeale, Giovannangelo, ed. (2001).The Etruscans Outside Etruria. Translated by Hartmann, Thomas Michael. Los Angeles: Getty Trust Publications (published 2004).
^Tassi F, Ghirotto S, Caramelli D, Barbujani G, et al. (2013). "Genetic evidence does not support an Etruscan origin in Anatolia".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.152 (1):11–18.Bibcode:2013AJPA..152...11T.doi:10.1002/ajpa.22319.PMID23900768.
^Leonardi, Michela; Sandionigi, Anna; Conzato, Annalisa; Lari, Martina; Tassi, Francesca (2018). "The female ancestor's tale: Long-term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.167 (3):497–506.Bibcode:2018AJPA..167..497L.doi:10.1002/ajpa.23679.PMID30187463.S2CID52161000.
^Antonio, Margaret L.; Gao, Ziyue; M. Moots, Hannah (2019)."Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean".Science.366 (6466). Washington D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science (published 8 November 2019):708–714.Bibcode:2019Sci...366..708A.doi:10.1126/science.aay6826.hdl:2318/1715466.PMC7093155.PMID31699931.Interestingly, although Iron Age individuals were sampled from both Etruscan (n=3) and Latin (n=6) contexts, we did not detect any significant differences between the two groups with f4 statistics in the form of f4(RMPR_Etruscan, RMPR_Latin; test population, Onge), suggesting shared origins or extensive genetic exchange between them.
^Karl Viktor Müllenhoff,Deutsche Alterthurnskunde, I volume.
^abStrabo,Geography, book 2, chapter 5, section 28.
^Dominique François Louis Roget de Belloguet,Ethnogénie gauloise, ou Mémoires critiques sur l'origine et la parenté des Cimmériens, des Cimbres, des Ombres, des Belges, des Ligures et des anciens Celtes. Troisiéme partie:Preuves intellectuelles. Le génie gaulois, Paris 1868.
^Gilberto OnetoPaesaggio e architettura delle regioni padano-alpine dalle origini alla fine del primo millennio, Priuli e Verlucc, editori 2002, pp. 34–36, 49.
^See, in particularMcEvedy, Colin (1967).The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History by Colin McEvedy. p. 29.
^Leonard Robert Palmer, The Latin Language, London: Faber and Faber, 1954, p. 54
^Sciarretta, Antonio (2010).Toponomastica d'Italia. Nomi di luoghi, storie di popoli antichi. Milano: Mursia. pp. 174–194.ISBN978-88-425-4017-5.
^P. A. Brunt, Italian manpower, 225 B.C.-A.D. 14, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 52
^abLa popolazione del Mondo Greco-Romano, Karl Julius Beloch
^Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol. 1, Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. 1854. p. 4
^Luuk De Ligt,Peasants, Citizens and Soldiers: Studies in the Demographic History of Roman Italy 225 BC – AD 100. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012. p. 43-44
^A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol. 3, London. John Murray: printed by Spottiswoode and Co., New-Street Square and Parliament Streetp. 661
^M. Rostovtzeff,A History of the Ancient World: Rome, Vol. II, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927, p. 171
^Alfred S. Bradford,With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World, Praeger Publishers, 2001, p. 191
^Staveley, ES (1989). "Rome and Italy in the Early Third Century". In Walbank, Frank William (ed.).The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. VII: the Hellenistic World: Part 2: The Rise of Rome to 220 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 425.Certainly, steps designed to consolidate her hold in the north-east followed this incident in quick succession: the foundation in 268 of the Latin colony of Ariminum .... the annexation of the whole Picentine land save for ... Ancona and ... Asculum; the transportation of large numbers of Picentes to theager Picentinus on the west coast, and finally in 264 the planting of a second large Latin colony on the coast at Firmum.
^Ettore Pais,Ancient Italy: Historical and Geographical Investigations in Central Italy, Magna Graecia, Sicily, and Sardinia, The University of Chicago Press, 1908
^Patrick Bruun, Studies in the romanization of Etruria, Vol. 1–7, p. 101
^Frank N. Magill,The Middle Ages: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 2, Salem Press, Inc. 1998, p. 895.
^William A. Sumruld,Augustine and the Arians: The Bishop of Hippo's Encounters with Ulfilan Arianism, Associated Press University Presses 1994, p. 23.
^De Bello Gothico IV 32, pp. 241–245; this reference stems from the pen of the Byzantine historian, Procopius, who accompanied Justinian's leading general, Belisarius, on his exploits between 527 and 540. This included the campaigns against the Ostrogoths, which is the subject ofDe Bello Gothico.
^Antonio Santosuosso,Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare, Westview Press 2004, p. 44.
^Corbanese, G. G. (1983).Il Friuli, Trieste e l'Istria: dalla Preistoria alla caduta del Patriarcato d'Aquileia (Grande Atlante Cronologico ed.). Udine: Del Bianco.
^Società Siciliana per la Storia Patria. Archivio Storico Siciliano (12 December 1876)."Archivio Storico Siciliano". Palermo. Retrieved12 December 2017 – via Internet Archive.
^Barone, Francesco (2003). "Islām in Sicilia nel XII e XIII secolo: ortoprassi, scienze religiose e tasawwuf". In Di Bella, Saverio; Tomasello, Dario (eds.).L'Islam in Europa tra passato e futuro. Cosenza: Pellegrini Editore. p. 104.ISBN88-8101-159-X.
^Jules Gay,L'Italie meridionale et l'empire Byzantin, Parigi 1904, vol. II, p. 450-453.
^David Abulafia,Le due Italie: relazioni economiche fra il regno normanno di Sicilia e i comuni settentrionali, Cambridge University Press 1977 (trad. it. Guida Editori, Napoli 1991), p. 114.
^These Lombard colonisers were natives from Northern Italy and should not be confused with theLombard Germanic tribe, who were referred to asLongobardi to distinguish them from the locals of the region who were known asLombardi.
^According to the most credible hypothesis this settlement dates back to a period between the eleventh century and the thirteenth century. Cfr.Toso, Fiorenzo (2008).Le minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino. p. 137.ISBN978-88-15-12677-1.
^abMoretti, Enrico (1 January 1999). "Social Networks and Migrations: Italy 1876-1913".The International Migration Review.33 (3):640–657.doi:10.2307/2547529.JSTOR2547529.
^Departamento de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas de laUniversidad Nacional de La Matanza (14 November 2011)."Historias de inmigrantes italianos en Argentina" (in Spanish). infouniversidades.siu.edu.ar.Se estima que en la actualidad, el 90% de la población argentina tiene alguna ascendencia europea y que al menos 25 millones están relacionados con algún inmigrante de Italia.
^The Italian Ambassador stated at the 2008 Film Festival in Asmara[1]Archived 2012-02-18 at theWayback Machine that nearly 100,000 Eritreans in 2008 have Italian blood, because they have at least one grandfather or great-grandfather from Italy.
^Cohen, I. Bernard (1965). "Reviewed work: The Scientific Renaissance, 1450-1630, Marie Boas".Isis.56 (2):240–242.doi:10.1086/349987.JSTOR227945.
^Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek (2002).The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge Companions. Routledge. pp. 1–5.ISBN978-0-415-21494-0.
^Of this second rootDario Fo he speaks of a true alternative culture to the official one: although widespread as an idea, some scholars such asGiovanni Antonucci [it] do not agree in considering it as such. In this regard, seeAntonucci, Giovanni (1995).Storia del teatro italiano (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. pp. 10–14.ISBN978-88-7983-974-7.
^Antonucci, Giovanni (1995).Storia del teatro italiano (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. p. 18.ISBN978-88-7983-974-7.
^abcChaffee, Judith; Crick, Olly (2015).The Routledge Companion to Commedia Dell'Arte. London and New York: Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group. p. 1.ISBN978-0-415-74506-2.
^Kuzmick Hansell, Kathleen (1980).Opera and Ballet at the Regio Ducal Teatro of Milan, 1771-1776: A Musical and Social History. Vol. I. University of California. p. 200.[ISBN unspecified]
^ab"Cinematografia",Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. III,Treccani, 1970, p. 226
^Andrea Fioravanti (2006).La "storia" senza storia. Racconti del passato tra letteratura, cinema e televisione (in Italian). Morlacchi Editore. p. 121.ISBN978-88-6074-066-3.
^Robert K. Klepper (1999).Silent Films, 1877-1996: A Critical Guide to 646 Movies. McFarland. p. 78.ISBN978-0-7864-0595-4.
^Patrick Robertson (1991).Guinness Book of Movie Facts and Feats. Abbeville Press. p. 217.ISBN978-1-55859-236-0.
^John Alberti (2014).Screen Ages: A Survey of American Cinema. Routledge. p. 45.ISBN978-1-317-65028-7.
^Several Italian encyclopaedias claim Meucci as the inventor of the telephone, including:– the "Treccani"[3]Archived 11 August 2017 at theWayback Machine– the Italian version of Microsoft digital encyclopaedia, Encarta.–Enciclopedia Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti (Italian Encyclopedia of Science, Literature and Arts).
^Orlando, Lucia (1998). "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the "New Tasks" of Physics in Italy".Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences.29 (1):141–181.doi:10.2307/27757806.JSTOR27757806.
^Ricci-Curbastro, Gregorio (1918),Lezioni di Analisi algebrica ed infinitesimale (1926 ed.), Padova: Tip. Universitaria
^Bondyopadhyay, Prebir K. (1995). "Guglielmo Marconi – The father of long distance radio communication – An engineer's tribute".25th European Microwave Conference, 1995. p. 879.doi:10.1109/EUMA.1995.337090.S2CID6928472.
^Related Articles (2 January 2009)."Italian cuisine".Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com.Archived from the original on 16 July 2010. Retrieved24 April 2010.
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