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Hypotheses for the etymology of the Latin name "Italia" are numerous.[76] One is that it was borrowed viaGreek from theOscanVíteliú 'land of calves' (cf.Latvitulus "calf",Umbvitlo "calf").[77] Greek historianDionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named afterItalus,[78] mentioned also byAristotle[79] andThucydides.[80]
According toAntiochus of Syracuse, the term Italy was used by the Greeks to initially refer only to the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula corresponding to the modern province ofReggio and part of the provinces ofCatanzaro andVibo Valentia inSouthern Italy. Nevertheless, by his time the larger concept ofOenotria and "Italy" had become synonymous and the name also applied to most ofLucania as well. According toStrabo'sGeographica, before the expansion of theRoman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between theStrait of Messina and the line connecting theGulf of Salerno andGulf of Taranto, corresponding roughly to the current region ofCalabria. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name "Italia" to a larger region[81] In addition to the "Greek Italy" in the south, historians have suggested the existence of an "Etruscan Italy" covering variable areas of central Italy.[82]
The borders of Roman Italy are better established.Cato the Elder'sOrigines, the first work ofhistory composed inLatin, described Italy as the entire peninsula south of theAlps.[83] According to Cato and several Roman authors, the Alps formed the "walls of Italy".[84] In 264 BC, Roman Italy extended from theArno andRubicon rivers of the centre-north to the entire south. The northern area ofCisalpine Gaul was occupied by Rome in the 220s BC and became considered geographically andde facto part of Italy,[85] but remained politically andde jure separated. It was legally merged into the administrative unit of Italy in 42 BC by the triumvirOctavian as a ratification ofJulius Caesar's unpublished acts (Acta Caesaris).[86][87][88][89][90] Under EmperorDiocletian the Roman region called "Italia" was further enlarged with the addition in 292 AD of the three big islands of the westernMediterranean Sea:Sicily (with theMaltese archipelago),Sardinia andCorsica, coinciding with the wholeItalian geographical region.[91][92] All its inhabitants were consideredItalic andRoman.[93]
The Latin termItalicus was used to describe "a man of Italy" as opposed to aprovincial. For example,Pliny the Elder notably wrote in a letterItalicus es an provincialis? meaning "are you an Italian or a provincial?".[94]The adjectiveitalianus, from which are derived the Italian (and also French and English) name of the Italians, ismedieval and was used alternatively with Italicus during theearly modern period.[95]
TheCapitoline Wolf (Italian:Lupa Capitolina) is abronze sculpture depicting a scene from the legend of thefounding of Rome. The sculpture shows ashe-wolf suckling the mythical twin founders of Rome,Romulus and Remus. The image of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus is a symbol of Rome since ancient times, and one of the most recognizable icons of ancient mythology.[97]
TheItalian peninsula was divided into a multitude of tribal or ethnic territory prior to theRoman conquest of Italy in the 3rd century BC. After a series of wars betweenGreeks andEtruscans, theLatins, withRome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and completed the conquest of the Italian peninsula by 218 BC.
This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, beginning with theFirst Punic War againstCarthage. In the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of theThird Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean.
Octavian, the final victor (31 BC), was accorded the title ofAugustus by theSenate and thereby became the first Roman Emperor.
In the 1st century BC,Italia was still a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, calledmunicipia, had some independence from Rome, while others, thecoloniae, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC,Augustus divided Italy into elevenregiones.
During theCrisis of the Third Century, theRoman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, emperorDiocletian restored political stability. The importance of Rome declined, because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. The seats of the Caesars becameAugusta Treverorum (on the RiverRhine frontier) forConstantius Chlorus andSirmium (on the RiverDanube frontier) forGalerius, who also resided atThessaloniki. Under Diocletian, Italy became theDioecesis Italiciana, subdivided into thirteen provinces, now includingRaetia.
UnderConstantine the Great, Italy became thePraetorian prefecture of Italy (praefectura praetoria Italiae), and was subdivided into two dioceses.Diocesis Italia annonaria (Italy of theannona, governed from Milan) andDiocesis Italia Suburbicaria (Italy "under the government of theurbs", i.e. governed from Rome).Christianity became the Roman state religion in AD 380, under EmperorTheodosius I.
The last Western emperor,Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy,Odoacer. His defeat marked the end of theWestern Roman Empire, and the end of the political unification of Italy until the establishment of the modern Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated byTheodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, theOstrogoths. Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian. After the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak. By 553, emperorJustinian I expelled the Ostrogoths, and Italy was included into theByzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty.
Byzantine rule in much of Italy collapsed by 572 as a result of invasions by another Germanic tribe, theLombards. Much of the peninsula was now politically dominated by theKingdom of the Lombards; however, remnants of Byzantine control remained, especially inSouthern Italy, where the Byzantine Empire retained control into the 11th century until theNorman conquest of Southern Italy. In addition to theNormans,Arabs conquered parts of Southern Italy in the 9th century, establishing anEmirate of Sicily that lasted until it was also eventually overtaken by the Normans in the 11th century. The subsequent interaction between Latin, Byzantine, Arab, and Norman cultures resulted in the formation of aNorman-Arab-Byzantine culture in Southern Italy.
During the 5th and 6th centuries, the popes increased their influence in both religious and political matters in Italy. It was usually the popes who led attempts to protect Italy from invasion or to soften foreign rule. For about 200 years the popes opposed attempts by the Lombards, who had captured most of Italy, to take over Rome as well. Thepopes finally defeated the Lombards with the aid of two Frankish kings,Pepin the Short andCharlemagne. Using land won for them by Pepin in 756, the popes established political rule in what were called thePapal States in central Italy.
The Lombards remained a threat to papal power, however, until they were crushed by Charlemagne in 774. Charlemagne added theKingdom of the Lombards to his vast realm. In recognition of Charlemagne's power, and to cement the church's alliance with him, Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans byPope Leo III in 800.[100] After Charlemagne's death in 814, his sonLouis the Pious succeeded him. Louis divided the empire among his sons, and Frankish Italy became part ofMiddle Francia, extending as far south asRome andSpoleto. ThisKingdom of Italy became part of theHoly Roman Empire in the 10th century, while southern Italy was under the rule of theLombardPrincipality of Benevento or of theByzantine Empire, in the 12th century absorbed into theKingdom of Sicily.
From the 11th century on, Italian cities began to grow rapidly in independence and importance. They became centres of political life,banking, and foreign trade. Some became wealthy, and many, includingFlorence,Rome,Genoa,Milan,Pisa,Siena andVenice, grew into nearly independent city-states andmaritime republics. Each had its own foreign policy and political life. They all resisted, with varying degrees of success, the efforts of noblemen, emperors, and larger foreign powers to control them.
The emergence of identifiableItalian dialects fromVulgar Latin, and as such the possibility of a specifically "Italian" ethnic identity, has no clear-cut date, but began in roughly the 12th century. Modern standard Italian derives from the written vernacular ofTuscan writers of the 12th century. The recognition of Italian vernaculars as literary languages in their own right began withDe vulgari eloquentia, an essay written byDante Alighieri at the beginning of the 14th century.
During the 14th and 15th centuries, some Italian city-states ranked among the most important powers of Europe. Venice, in particular, had become a major maritime power, and the city-states as a group acted as a conduit for goods from the Byzantine and Islamic empires. In this capacity, they provided great impetus to the developingRenaissance, began in Florence in the 14th century,[102] and led to an unparalleled flourishing of the arts, literature, music, and science.
The Italian explorerChristopher Columbus leads an expedition to the New World, 1492.His voyages are celebrated as the discovery of the Americas from a European perspective, and they opened anew era in the history of humankind and sustained contact between the two worlds.
However, the city-states were often troubled by violent disagreements among their citizens. The most famous division was between theGuelphs and Ghibellines. The Guelphs supported supreme rule by the pope, and the Ghibellines favoured the emperor. City-states often took sides and waged war against each other. During the Renaissance, Italy became an even more attractive prize to foreign conquerors. After some city-states asked for outside help in settling disputes with their neighbours, KingCharles VIII of France marched into Italy in 1494; he soon withdrew, showing that the Italian peninsula's delicate equilibrium could be taken advantage of. After theItalian Wars, Spain emerged as the dominant force in the region. Venice, Milan, and other city-states retained at least some of their former greatness during this period, as didSavoy-Piedmont, protected by the Alps and well defended by its vigorous rulers.
Italian[104]explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies in order to bypass theOttoman Empire, offered their services to monarchs of Atlantic countries and played a key role in ushering theAge of Discovery and the European colonization of the Americas. The most notable among them were:Christopher Columbus (Italian:Cristoforo Colombo[kriˈstɔːforokoˈlombo]), colonist in the name of Spain, who is credited with discovering the New World and the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans;[105]John Cabot (Italian:Giovanni Caboto[dʒoˈvannikaˈbɔːto]), sailing for England, who was the first European to set foot in "New Found Land" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497;[106]Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for Portugal, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World (in particular Brazil) was not Asia as initially conjectured, but a fourth continent previously unknown to people of the Old World (the name of "America" derives from his first name[103]);[107] andGiovanni da Verrazzano, at the service of France, renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524.[108]
The French Revolution and Napoleon influenced Italy more deeply than they affected any other outside country of Europe. TheFrench Revolution began in 1789 and immediately found supporters among the Italian people. The local Italian rulers, sensing danger in their own country, drew closer to the European kings who opposed France. After the French king was overthrown and France became a republic, secret clubs favouring an Italian republic were formed throughout Italy.
The armies of the French Republic began to move across Europe. In 1796,Napoleon Bonaparte led a French army into northern Italy and drove out the Austrian rulers. Once again, Italy was the scene of battle between theHabsburgs and the French. Wherever France conquered, Italian republics were set up, with constitutions and legal reforms. Napoleon made himself emperor in 1804, and part of northern and central Italy was unified under the name of the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as king. The rest of northern and central Italy was annexed by France. Only Sicily, wherethe Bourbon king had taken refuge upon the French invasion of Naples, and the island of Sardinia, which had been ceded to the AlpineHouse of Savoy in 1720 and had remained under their rule ever since, were not under French control.
French domination lasted less than 20 years, and it differed from previous foreign control of the Italian peninsula. In spite of heavy taxation and frequent harshness, the French introduced representative assemblies and new laws that were the same for all parts of the country. For the first time since the days of ancient Rome, Italians of different regions used the same money and served in the same army. Many Italians began to see the possibility of a united Italy free of foreign control.
After theBattle of Waterloo, the reaction set in with theCongress of Vienna allowed the restoration of many of the old rulers and systems under Austrian domination. The concept of nationalism continued strong, however, and sporadic outbreaks led by such inveterate reformers asGiuseppe Mazzini occurred in several parts of the peninsula down to 1848–49. In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the songIl Canto degli Italiani, the Italiannational anthem since 1946, took place.[116][117]Il Canto degli Italiani, written byGoffredo Mameli set to music byMichele Novaro, is also known as theInno di Mameli, after the author of the lyrics, orFratelli d'Italia, from itsopening line.
Italian troops occupied Rome in 1870, and in July 1871, this formally became the capital of the kingdom.Pope Pius IX, a longtime rival of Italian kings, stated he had been made a "prisoner" inside theVatican walls and refused to cooperate with the royal administration. Only in 1929 did the Roman Pope accept the unified Italy withRome as capital.
In the decades following unification, Italy began creating colonies inAfrica, and underBenito Mussolini'sfascist regime conqueredEthiopia, founding theItalian Empire in 1936. The population of Italy grew to 45 million in 1940 and the economy, which had been based upon agriculture until that time, started its industrial development, mainly in northern Italy.World War II soon severely damaged Italy and destroyed its colonial power.
Between 1945 and 1948, the outlines of a new Italy began to appear.Victor Emmanuel III gave up the throne on 9 May 1946, and his son,Umberto II, became king. On 2 June Italy held its first free election after 20 years of Fascist rule (the so-calledVentennio). Italianschose a republic to replace the monarchy, which had been closely associated withFascism. They elected aConstituent Assembly, which was formed by the representatives of all theanti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during theItalian Civil War,[119] to prepare a new democratic constitution. The Assembly approved the newItalian constitution in 1947, which came into force on 1 January 1948.
In 1949 Italy became a member ofNATO. TheMarshall Plan helped to revive the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the "Economic Miracle". In 1957, Italy was a founding member of theEuropean Economic Community (EEC), which became theEuropean Union (EU) in 1993.
Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993 perpetrated by theSicilian Mafia as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "Maxi Trial", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judgesGiovanni Falcone (23 May in theCapaci bombing) andPaolo Borsellino (19 July in theVia D'Amelio bombing).[121] One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as theVia dei Georgofili in Florence,Via Palestro in Milan, and the PiazzaSan Giovanni in Laterano and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as theUffizi Gallery. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.[122][123][124] Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino were named as heroes of the last 60 years in 13 November 2006 issue ofTime.[125]
Italy also became a seat of great formal learning in 1088 with the establishment of theUniversity of Bologna, theoldest university in continuous operation, and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the worduniversitas was coined at its foundation.[130][131][132][133] Many other Italian universities soon followed. For example, theSchola Medica Salernitana, in southern Italy, was the first medical school in Europe.[134] These great centres of learning presaged theRinascimento: the European Renaissance began in Italy and was fueled throughout Europe by Italian painters, sculptors, architects, scientists, literature masters and music composers. Italy continued its leading cultural role through theBaroque period and into the Romantic period, when its dominance in painting and sculpture diminished but the Italians re-established a strong presence in music.
Italian explorers and navigators in the 15th and 16th centuries left a perennial mark on human history with the modern "discovery of America", due to theGenoese explorerChristopher Columbus. In addition, the name of "America" derives from the geographerAmerigo Vespucci's first name.[103] Also noted isMarco Polo, explorer of the 13th century, who recorded his 24 years-long travels in theBook of the Marvels of the World, introducing Europeans to Central Asia and China.[99]
The country boasts several world-famous cities.Rome was the ancient capital of the Roman Empire, seat of the Pope of the Catholic Church, capital of reunified Italy and artistic, cultural and cinematographic centre of world relevance.Florence was the heart of theRenaissance, a period of great achievements inthe arts at the end of the Middle Ages.[135] Other important cities includeTurin, which used to be the capital of Italy, and is now one of the world's great centers of automobile engineering.Milan is the industrial and financial capital of Italy and one of the world'sfashion capitals.Venice, former capital of amajor financial and maritime power from the Middle Ages to the early modern period, with its intricate canal system attracts tourists from all over the world especially during theVenetian Carnival and theBiennale.Naples, with the largest historic city centre in Europe and the oldest continuously active public opera house in the world (Teatro di San Carlo).Bologna is the main transport hub of the country, as well as the home of aworldwide famous cuisine.[130]
Due to comparatively late national unification, and the historical autonomy of the regions that comprise the Italian peninsula, many traditions and customs of the Italians can be identified by their regions of origin. Despite the political and social isolation of these regions, Italy's contributions to the cultural and historical heritage of the Western world remain immense. Famous elements of Italian culture are itsopera and music, its iconic gastronomy and food, which are commonly regarded as amongst the most popular in the world,[136] itscinema (with filmmakers such asFederico Fellini,Michelangelo Antonioni,Mario Monicelli,Sergio Leone, etc.), its collections of priceless works of art and its fashion (Milan and Florence are regarded as some of the fewfashion capitals of the world).
Women in Italy refers to females who are from (or reside in)Italy. The legal and social status of Italian women has undergone rapid transformations and changes during the past decades. This includesfamily laws, the enactment ofanti-discrimination measures, and reforms to the penal code (in particular with regard to crimes of violence against women).[139] AfterWorld War II, women were given the right to vote in1946 Italian institutional referendum. The newItalian Constitution of 1948 affirmed that women had equal rights. It was not however until the 1970s that women in Italy scored some major achievements with the introduction of laws regulating divorce (1970), abortion (1978), and the approval in 1975 of the new family code. Today, women have the same legal rights as men in Italy, and have mainly the same job, business, and education opportunities.[140]
Italian cuisine is aMediterranean cuisine[141] consisting of theingredients,recipes andcooking techniques developed across theItalian Peninsula sinceantiquity, and later spread around the world together with waves ofItalian diaspora.[142][143][144] Italian cuisine includes deeply rooted traditions common to the whole country, as well as all theregional gastronomies, different from each other, especially betweenthe north,the centre andthe south of Italy, which are in continuous exchange.[145][146][147] Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated with variations throughout the country.[148][149] Italian cuisine offers an abundance of taste, and has influenced several other cuisines around the world, chiefly that of theUnited States.[150] The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people more so than bychefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and dailycooking, respecting regional specificities, privileging only raw materials and ingredients from the region of origin of the dish and preserving its seasonality.[151][152][153]
Over the ages,Italian literature had a vast influence on Western philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going onto Renaissance,The Enlightenment and modern philosophy.Italian medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included several important philosophers and theologians such as StThomas Aquinas. Aquinas was the student ofAlbert the Great, a brilliantDominican experimentalist, much like theFranciscan,Roger Bacon ofOxford in the 13th century. Aquinas reintroducedAristotelian philosophy to Christianity. He believed that there was no contradiction between faith and secular reason. He believed that Aristotle had achieved the pinnacle in the human striving for truth and thus adopted Aristotle's philosophy as a framework in constructing his theological and philosophical outlook. He was a professor at the prestigiousUniversity of Paris.
Italy was also affected by the Enlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of theRenaissance and changed the road of Italian philosophy.[154] Followers of the group often met to discuss in private salons and coffeehouses, notably in the cities ofMilan, Rome andVenice. Cities with important universities such asPadua,Bologna andNaples, however, also remained great centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such asGiambattista Vico (1668–1744) (who is widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy)[155] andAntonio Genovesi.[154] Italian society also dramatically changed during the Enlightenment, with rulers such asLeopold II of Tuscany abolishing the death penalty. The church's power was significantly reduced, and it was a period of great thought and invention, with scientists such asAlessandro Volta andLuigi Galvani discovering new things and greatly contributing to Western science.[154]Cesare Beccaria was also one of the greatest Italian Enlightenment writers and is now considered one of the fathers ofclassical criminal theory as well as modernpenology.[156] Beccaria is famous for his masterpieceOn Crimes and Punishments (1764), a treatise (later translated into 22 languages) that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations oftorture and thedeath penalty and thus a landmark work inanti-death penalty philosophy.[154]
Some of the most prominent philosophies and ideologies in Italy during the late 19th and 20th centuries includeanarchism,communism,socialism,futurism,fascism, andChristian democracy.Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder ofItalian idealism. Both futurism and fascism (in its original form, now often distinguished asItalian fascism) were developed in Italy at this time. From the 1920s to the 1940s, Italian Fascism was the official philosophy and ideology of the Italian government led by Benito Mussolini.Giovanni Gentile was one of the most significant 20th-century Idealist/Fascist philosophers. Meanwhile, anarchism, communism, and socialism, though not originating in Italy, took significant hold in Italy during the early 20th century, with the country producing numerous significantItalian anarchists, socialists, and communists. In addition,anarcho-communism first fully formed into its modern strain within the Italian section of theFirst International.[157]Antonio Gramsci remains an important philosopher withinMarxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory ofcultural hegemony.
Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in Rome.[161] Latin literature was, and still is, highly influential in the world, with numerous writers, poets, philosophers, and historians, such asPliny the Elder,Pliny the Younger,Virgil,Horace,Propertius,Ovid andLivy. The Romans were also famous for their oral tradition, poetry, drama and epigrams.[162] In early years of the 13th century, St.Francis of Assisi was considered the first Italian poet by literary critics, with his religious songCanticle of the Sun.[163]
Italian literature may be unearthed back to theMiddle Ages, with the most significant poets of the period beingDante Alighieri,Petrarch, andGiovanni Boccaccio. During theRenaissance, humanists such asLeonardo Bruni,Coluccio Salutati andNiccolò Machiavelli were great collectors of antique manuscripts. Many worked for the organized Church and were in holy orders (like Petrarch), while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, like Petrarch's disciple, Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence, and thus had access to book copying workshops.
In the 18th century, the political condition of the Italian states began to improve, and philosophers disseminated their writings and ideas throughoutEurope during theAge of Enlightenment.Apostolo Zeno andMetastasio are two of the notable figures of the age.Carlo Goldoni, a Venetian playwright and librettist, created the comedy of character. The leading figure of the 18th-century Italian literary revival wasGiuseppe Parini.
One of the most remarkable poets of the early 19th and 20th century writers wasGiacomo Leopardi, who is widely acknowledged to be one of the most radical and challenging thinkers of the 19th century.[165][166] The main instigator of the reform was the Italian poet and novelistAlessandro Manzoni, notable for being the author of the historical novelI promessi sposi (The Betrothed, 1827–1842).Italo Svevo, the author ofLa coscienza di Zeno (1923), andLuigi Pirandello (winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize in Literature), who explored the shifting nature of reality in his prose fiction and such plays asSei personaggi in cerca d'autore (Six Characters in Search of an Author, 1921).Federigo Tozzi andGiuseppe Ungaretti were well-known novelists, critically appreciated only in recent years, and regarded one of the forerunners ofexistentialism in the European novel.
Italian theatre originates from theMiddle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of theancient Greek colonies ofMagna Graecia, inSouthern Italy,[168] the theatre of theItalic peoples[169] and thetheatre of ancient Rome. It can therefore be assumed that there were two main lines of which the ancient Italian theatre developed in the Middle Ages. The first, consisting of the dramatization of Catholic liturgies and of which more documentation is retained, and the second, formed by pagan forms of spectacle such as the staging for city festivals, the court preparations of the jesters and the songs of thetroubadours.[170] TheRenaissance theatre marked the beginning of the modern theatre due to the rediscovery and study of the classics, the ancient theatrical texts were recovered and translated, which were soon staged at the court and in the curtensi halls, and then moved to real theatre. In this way the idea of theatre came close to that of today: a performance in a designated place in which the public participates. In the late 15th century two cities were important centers for the rediscovery and renewal of theatrical art:Ferrara andRome. The first, vital center of art in the second half of the fifteenth century, saw the staging of some of the most famous Latin works byPlautus, rigorously translated into Italian.[171]
During the 16th century and on into the 18th century,Commedia dell'arte was a form ofimprovisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form ofjuggling,acrobatics and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, calledcanovaccio. Plays did not originate from written drama but from scenarios calledlazzi, which were loose frameworks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around which the actors would improvise. The characters of thecommedia usually represent fixed social types andstock characters, each of which has a distinctcostume, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of falsebravado. The main categories of these characters include servants, old men, lovers, and captains.[175]
TheBallet dance genre also originated in Italy. It began during the Italian Renaissance court as an outgrowth of court pageantry,[176] where aristocratic weddings were lavish celebrations. Court musicians and dancers collaborated to provide elaborate entertainment for them.[177] At first, ballets were woven in to the midst of an opera to allow the audience a moment of relief from the dramatic intensity. By the mid-seventeenth century, Italian ballets in their entirety were performed in between the acts of an opera. Over time, Italian ballets became part of theatrical life: ballet companies in Italy's major opera houses employed an average of four to twelve dancers; in 1815 many companies employed anywhere from eighty to one hundred dancers.[178]
Since the Roman Empire, most western contributions to Western legal culture was the emergence of a class of Roman jurists. During the Middle Ages,Thomas Aquinas, the most influentialWestern scholar of the period, integrated the theory of natural law with the notion of an eternal and Biblical law.[179] During the Renaissance, Prof.Alberico Gentili, the founder of the science of international law, authored the first treatise on public international law and separated secular law from canon law and Catholic theology.Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists,Cesare Beccaria,Giambattista Vico andFrancesco Mario Pagano, are well remembered for their legal works, particularly on criminal law.Francesco Carrara, an advocate of abolition of the death penalty, was one of the foremost European criminal lawyers of the 19th century. During the last periods, numerous Italians have been recognised as the prominent prosecutor magistrates.
Italians have been the central figures of countless inventions and discoveries and they made many predominant contributions to various fields. During theRenaissance, Italian polymaths such asLeonardo da Vinci (1452–1519),Michelangelo (1475–1564) andLeon Battista Alberti (1404–72) made important contributions to a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering.Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), a physicist, mathematician and astronomer, played a major role in theScientific Revolution. His achievements include the invention of the thermometer and key improvements to thetelescope and consequent astronomical observations, and ultimately the triumph ofCopernicanism over thePtolemaic model. Other astronomers such asGiovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) andGiovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made many important discoveries about theSolar System.
In chemistry,Giulio Natta, the inventor of the first catalyst for the production of isotactic propylene and among the fathers of macromolecular chemistry, in 1963 received the Nobel prize for chemistry, along withKarl Ziegler, for work on highpolymers.
Jacopo Riccati, who was also a jurist, invented theRiccati equation.Maria Gaetana Agnesi, the first woman to write a mathematics handbook, become the first woman mathematics professor at a university.Gian Francesco Malfatti, posed the problem of carving three circular columns out of a triangular block of marble, using as much of the marble as possible, and conjectured that three mutually-tangent circles inscribed within the triangle would provide the optimal solution, which are now known asMalfatti circles.Paolo Ruffini is credited for his innovative work in mathematics, creatingRuffini's rule and co-creating theAbel–Ruffini theorem.Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who was one of the most influential mathematicians of his time, made essential contributions toanalysis,number theory, and bothclassical andcelestial mechanics.
In the post-World War II period, Italy saw a transformation from an agricultural based economy which had been severely affected by the consequences of theWorld Wars, into one of the world's most advanced nations,[194] and a leading country inworld trade and exports. Italy is the world's seventh-largestmanufacturing country,[195] characterised by a smaller number of global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size and many dynamicsmall and medium-sized enterprises, notoriously clustered in severalindustrial districts, which are the backbone of the Italian industry. Italy is a large manufacturer[196] and exporter[197] of a significant variety of products. Its products includemachinery,vehicles,pharmaceuticals, furniture, food and clothing.[198]
One of the main characteristics of Italian cuisine is its simplicity, with many dishes made up of few ingredients, and therefore Italian cooks often rely on the quality of the ingredients, rather than the complexity of preparation.[200][201] The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people more so than bychefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and dailycooking, respecting regional specificities, privileging only raw materials and ingredients from the region of origin of the dish and preserving its seasonality.[151][152][153]
The history of Italian visual arts is significant to the history ofWestern painting.Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. Roman painting does have its own unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas inCampania, in Southern Italy. Such paintings can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods[202] and may contain the first examples oftrompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.[203]
Panel painting becomes more common during theRomanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century,Medieval art andGothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy withCimabue and then his pupilGiotto. From Giotto onwards, the treatment of composition in painting became much more free and innovative.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, theHigh Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known asMannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures ofPiero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions ofPontormo and the emotional intensity ofEl Greco.
As Italy is home tothe greatest number ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites (58) to date and it is home to half the world's great art treasures,[204] Italians are known for their significant architectural achievements,[205] such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures duringancient Rome, the founding of theRenaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland ofPalladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that ofNeoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs which noblemen built their country houses all over the world, notably in the UK, Australia and the US during the late 17th to early 20th centuries. Several of the finest works in Western architecture, such as theColosseum, theMilan Cathedral andFlorence cathedral, theLeaning Tower of Pisa and the building designs ofVenice are found in Italy.
Italian architecture has also widely influenced the architecture of the world. British architectInigo Jones, inspired by the designs of Italian buildings and cities, brought back the ideas of Italian Renaissance architecture to 17th-century England, being inspired byAndrea Palladio.[206] Additionally,Italianate architecture, popular abroad since the 19th century, was used to describe foreign architecture which was built in an Italian style, especially modelled onRenaissance architecture.
Fromfolk music toclassical, music has always played an important role in Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as thesymphony, concerto, andsonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.Italians invented many of the musical instruments, including the piano and violin.
Italians are amply known as the mothers of opera.[209]Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in Italian cities such asMantua andVenice.[209] Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such asRossini,Bellini,Donizetti,Verdi andPuccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world. La Scala operahouse in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world. Famous Italian opera singers includeEnrico Caruso andAlessandro Bonci.
Introduced in the early 1920s,jazz took a particularly strong foothold among Italians, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of theprogressive rock movement of the 1970s, with bands likePFM andGoblin. Italy was also an important country in the development ofdisco andelectronic music, withItalo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent usage of synthesizers anddrum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside fromEuro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such asEurodance andNu-disco).
Since the development of the Italian film industry in the early 1900s, Italian filmmakers and performers have, at times, experienced both domestic and international success, and have influenced film movements throughout the world.[211][212] The history ofItalian cinema began a few months after theLumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions.[213][214] The first Italian director is considered to beVittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmedPope Leo XIII in 1896.[215] In the 1910s the Italian film industry developed rapidly.[216]Cabiria, a 1914 Italianepic film directed byGiovanni Pastrone, is considered the most famous Italiansilent film.[216][217] It was also the first film in history to be shown in theWhite House.[218][219][220] The oldest Europeanavant-garde cinema movement,Italian futurism, took place in the late 1910s.[221]
After a period of decline in the 1920s, the Italian film industry was revitalized in the 1930s with the arrival ofsound film. A popular Italian genre during this period, theTelefoni Bianchi, consisted of comedies with glamorous backgrounds.[222]Calligrafismo was instead in a sharp contrast to Telefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is ratherartistic, highlyformalistic,expressive in complexity and deals mainly with contemporary literary material.[223]
Vittorio De Sica, one of the world's most acclaimed and influential filmmakers of all time[224]
Sergio Leone, widely regarded as one of the most influential directors in the history of cinema[225][226]
Italian fashion hasa long tradition. Milan, Florence and Rome are Italy's mainfashion capitals. According toTop Global Fashion Capital Rankings 2013 byGlobal Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide when Milan was twelfth. Previously, in 2009, Milan was declared as the "fashion capital of the world" by Global Language Monitor itself.[239] Currently, Milan and Rome, annually compete with other major international centres, such as Paris, New York, London, and Tokyo.
The Italian fashion industry is one of the country's most important manufacturing sectors. The majority of the older Italian couturiers are based in Rome. However, Milan is seen as the fashion capital of Italy because many well-known designers are based there and it is the venue for the Italian designer collections. Major Italian fashion labels, such asGucci,Armani,Prada,Versace,Valentino,Dolce & Gabbana,Missoni,Fendi,Moschino,Max Mara,Trussardi,Benetton, andFerragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world.
Accessory and jewelry labels, such asBulgari,Luxottica,Buccellati have been founded in Italy and are internationally acclaimed, and Luxottica is the world's largest eyewear company. Also, the fashion magazineVogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.[240] The talent of young, creative fashion is also promoted, as in the ITS young fashion designer competition in Trieste.[241]
Italy is also prominentin the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design,industrial design, and urban design. The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such asGio Ponti andEttore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such asBel Disegno andLinea Italiana have entered the vocabulary of furniture design.[242] Examples of classic pieces of Italianwhite goods and pieces of furniture includeZanussi's washing machines and fridges,[243] the "New Tone" sofas by Atrium,[243] and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again".[243]
Giacomo Agostini, the most successful motorcyclist in the history of the World Championship[247]
Motorcycle racers such asGiacomo Agostini andValentino Rossi are recognized as some of the greatest sportstars of all time.Federica Pellegrini, one of the few female swimmers to have set world records in more than one event has been one of the world's most successful swimmers. Italian athletes have won 549 medals at theSummer Olympic Games, and another 114 medals at theWinter Olympic Games.Jessica Rossi scored aShooting sport world record of 75 in the qualification and a world record of 99. As for Olympic games, 663 Italians won medals, particularly inSwordsmanship, which makes them the 6th most successful ethnic group in Olympic history. There are more than 2,000,000 Italian skiers in the world, most of them, thanks to the presence of theAlps and theApennines, inNorthern and inCentral Italy. Italian skiers received good results in the Winter Olympic Games, World Cup, and World Championships.
Italians are the second of the most who have won theWorld Cycling Championship more than any other country afterBelgium. TheGiro d'Italia is a world-famous long-distance cycling race held every May, and constitutes one of the threeGrand Tours, along with theTour de France and theVuelta a España, each of which last approximately three weeks.Tennis has a significant following near courts and on television. Italian professional tennis players are almost always in the top 100 world ranking of male and female players.Beach tennis with paddle racquet was invented by Italians, and is practised by many people across the country.Basketball is also quite followed in Italy. TheItalian national basketball team's best results were gold atEurobasket 1983 andEuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in2004.Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe.[249]Volleyball is played by a lot of amateur players and professional players compete in theItalian Volleyball League, regarded as the best and most difficult volleyball league in the world. Themale andfemale national teams are often in the top 4 ranking of teams in the world.Athletics is a popular sport for Italians, as the Italian World and Olympic champions are very celebrated people.Inwrestling, one of the most remarkable wrestlers isBruno Sammartino, who held the record of theWWWF (World) Heavyweight Championship for over 11 years across two reigns, the first of which is the longest single reign in the promotion's history.
Rugby union was imported from France in the 1910s and has been regularly played since the 1920s; theNational team has progressed slowly but significantly during the decades and thanks to the good results achieved in the second half of the 1990s, when they managed to beat historical teams likeScotland,Ireland and eventuallyFrance, Italy gained the admission to the Five Nation Championship, later renamedSix Nations; Italy has taken part to theRugby World Cup since its inauguration in 1987 and never missed an edition though to date has never gone past the group stage.
Women in Italy refers to females who are from (or reside in)Italy. The legal and social status of Italian women has undergone rapid transformations and changes during the past decades. This includesfamily laws, the enactment ofanti-discrimination measures, and reforms to the penal code (in particular with regard to crimes of violence against women).[139]
AfterWorld War II, women were given the right to vote in1946 Italian institutional referendum. The newItalian Constitution of 1948 affirmed that women had equal rights. It was not however until the 1970s that women in Italy scored some major achievements with the introduction of laws regulating divorce (1970), abortion (1978), and the approval in 1975 of the new family code. Today, women have the same legal rights as men in Italy, and have mainly the same job, business, and education opportunities.[140]
"Not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces".[255]
"For her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general."[260]
"For his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons."[262]
"For his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles."[263]
"For his distinctive poetry which, with great artistic sensitivity, has interpreted human values under the sign of an outlook on life with no illusions."[269]
"For his decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction."[270]
Neolithic Europe c. 4500 BC. TheCardium Pottery people and theLinear Pottery people were derived from a singlemigration from Anatolia into the Balkans, which then split into two and expanded northward and westward further into Europe.
TheNeolithic colonization of Europe fromWestern Asia and theMiddle East beginning around 10,000 years ago reached Italy, as most of the rest of the continent although, according to thedemic diffusion model, its impact was most in the southern and eastern regions of the European continent.[297]
Starting in the earlyBronze Age, the first wave of migrations into Italy ofIndo-European-speaking peoples occurred fromCentral Europe, with the appearance of theBell Beaker culture. These were later (from the 14th century BC) followed by others that can be identified asItalo-Celts, with the appearance of the Celtic-speakingCanegrate culture[298] and the Italic-speakingProto-Villanovan culture,[299] both deriving from the Proto-Italo-CelticUrnfield culture. Recent DNA studies confirmed the arrival ofSteppe-related ancestry in Northern Italy to at least 2000 BCE and in Central Italy by 1600 BCE, with this ancestry component increasing through time.[300][301][302]
By the beginning of theIron Age theEtruscans emerged as the dominant civilization on the Italian peninsula. The Etruscans, whose primary home was inEtruria, expanded over a large part of Italy, covering aterritory, at its greatest extent, of roughly what is nowTuscany, westernUmbria, and northernLazio,[314][315] as well as what are now thePo Valley,Emilia-Romagna, south-easternLombardy, southernVeneto, and westernCampania.[316][317][318][319][320] On the origins of the Etruscans, the ancient authors reportseveral hypotheses, one of which claims that the Etruscans come from the Aegean Sea. Modern archaeological and genetic research concluded that the Etruscans wereautochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster lacking recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean.[321][322][323][324][325][326]
The Ligures are said to have been one of the oldest populations in Italy and Western Europe,[327] possibly of Pre-Indo-European origin.[328] According to Strabo they were not Celts, but later became influenced by the Celtic culture of their neighbours, and thus are sometimes referred to as Celticized Ligurians or Celto-Ligurians.[329] Their language had affinities with bothItalic (Latin and theOsco-Umbrian languages) andCeltic (Gaulish).[330][331][332] They primarily inhabited the regions ofLiguria,Piedmont, northernTuscany, westernLombardy, westernEmilia-Romagna and northernSardinia, but are believed to have once occupied an even larger portion of ancient Italy as far south asSicily.[333][334] They were also settled inCorsica and in theProvence region along the southern coast of modernFrance.
Beginning in the 8th century BC, Greeks arrived in Italy and founded cities along the coast of southern Italy and eastern Sicily, which became known asMagna Graecia ("Greater Greece"). The Greeks were frequently at war with the native Italic tribes, but nonetheless managed toHellenize and assimilate a good portion of the indigenous population located along eastern Sicily and the Southern coasts of the Italian mainland.[338][339] According toBeloch the number of Greek citizens in south Italy at its greatest extent reached only 80,000–90,000, while the local people subjected by the Greeks were between 400,000 and 600,000.[340][341] By the 4th and 3rd century BC, Greek power in Italy was challenged and began to decline, and many Greeks were pushed out of peninsular Italy by the nativeOscan,Brutti andLucani tribes.[342]
Duel of Lucanian warriors, fresco from a tomb of the 4th century BC
TheGauls crossed the Alps andinvaded northern Italy in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, settling in the area that became known asCisalpine Gaul ("Gaul on this side of the Alps"). Although named after the Gauls, the region was mostly inhabited by indigenous tribes, namely the Ligures, Etruscans, Veneti andEuganei. Estimates by Beloch andBrunt suggest that in the 3rd century BC the Gaulish settlers of north Italy numbered between 130,000 and 140,000 out of a total population of about 1.4 million.[341][343] The Northern half of Cisalpine Gaul was already inhabited by the CelticLepontii since the Bronze Age. Speaking about the Alpine region, the Greek historianStrabo, wrote:
TheAlps are inhabited by numerous nations, but allKeltic with the exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life.[329]
According toPliny andLivy, after the invasion of the Gauls, some of the Etruscans living in the Po Valley sought refuge in the Alps and became known as theRaeti.[344][345] The Raeti inhabited the region ofTrentino-Alto Adige, as well as easternSwitzerland andTyrol in westernAustria. TheLadins of north-eastern Italy and theRomansh people of Switzerland are said to be descended from the Raeti.[346]
Map of Roman coloniae during the second century in Italy
TheRomans—who according to legend originally consisted ofthree ancient tribes: Latins, Sabines and Etruscans[347]—would go on toconquer the whole Italian peninsula. During the Roman period hundreds of cities and colonies were established throughout Italy, includingFlorence,Turin,Como,Pavia,Padua,Verona,Vicenza,Trieste and many others. Initially many of these cities were colonized by Latins, but later also included colonists belonging to the other Italic tribes who had become Latinized and joined to Rome. After the Roman conquest of Italy "the whole of Italy had become Latinized".[348]
After theRoman conquest of Cisalpine Gaul and the widespread confiscations of Gallic territory, some of the Gaulish population was either killed or expelled.[349][350] Many colonies were established by the Romans in the former Gallic territory of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then settled by Roman and Italic people. These colonies includedBologna,Modena,Reggio Emilia,Parma,Piacenza,Cremona andForlì. According toStrabo:
The Cispadane peoples occupy all that country which is encircled by the Apennine Mountains towards the Alps as far as Genua and Sabata. The greater part of the country used to be occupied by the Boii, Ligures, Senones, andGaesatae; but since the Boii have been driven out, and since both the Gaesatae and the Senones have been annihilated, only the Ligurian tribes and the Roman colonies are left.[350]
TheBoii, the most powerful and numerous of the Gallic tribes, were expelled by the Romans after 191 BC and settled inBohemia, while theInsubres still lived inMediolanum in the 1st century BC.[351]
Population movement and exchange among people from different regions was not uncommon during the Roman period. Latin colonies were founded atAriminum in 268 and atFirmum in 264,[352] while large numbers ofPicentes, who previously inhabited the region, were moved toPaestum and settled along the riverSilarus inCampania. Between 180 and 179 BC, 47,000 Ligures belonging to the Apuani tribe were removed from their home along the modern Ligurian-Tuscan border and deported toSamnium, an area corresponding to inland Campania, while Latin colonies were established in their place atPisa,Lucca andLuni.[353] Such population movements contributed to the rapid Romanization and Latinization ofItaly.[354]
Lombard (Northern Italian) colonies of Sicily: in light blue: the cities where Gallo-Italic language is spoken today. In dark blue: the cities where there is a good influence of the Gallo-Italic language. In purple: ancient Gallo-Italic colonies, the influence in these cities is variable, also some districts ofMessina were colonized.
A large Germanic confederation ofSciri,Heruli,Turcilingi andRugians, led byOdoacer, invaded and settled Italy in 476.[355] They were preceded byAlemanni, including 30,000 warriors with their families, who settled in the Po Valley in 371,[356] and byBurgundians who settled between Northwestern Italy and Southern France in 443.[357] The Germanic tribe of theOstrogoths led byTheoderic the Great conquered Italy and presented themselves as upholders of Latin culture, mixingRoman culture together with Gothic culture, in order to legitimize their rule amongst Roman subjects who had a long-held belief in the superiority of Roman culture over foreign "barbarian" Germanic culture.[358] Since Italy had a population of several million, the Goths did not constitute a significant addition to the local population.[359] At the height of their power, there were several thousand Ostrogoths in a population of 6 or 7 million.[357][360] Before them,Radagaisus led tens of thousands of Goths in Italy in 406, though figures may be too high as ancient sources routinely inflated the numbers of tribal invaders.[361] After theGothic War, which devastated the local population, the Ostrogoths were defeated. Nevertheless, according to Roman historianProcopius of Caesarea, the Ostrogothic population was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty.[362]
But in the sixth century, another Germanic tribe known as theLongobards invaded Italy, which in the meantime had been reconquered by the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Longobards were a small minority compared to the roughly four million people in Italy at the time.[363] They were later followed by theBavarians and theFranks, who conquered and ruled most of Italy. Some groups ofSlavs settled in parts of the northern Italian peninsula between the 7th and the 8th centuries,[364][365][366] whileBulgars led byAlcek settled inSepino,Bojano andIsernia. These Bulgars preserved their speech and identity until the late 8th century.[367]
Following Roman rule, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia were conquered by theVandals, then by the Ostrogoths, and finally by the Byzantines. At one point, Sardinia grew increasingly autonomous from the Byzantine rule to the point of organizing itself intofour sovereign Kingdoms, known as "Judicates", that would last until theAragonese conquest in the 15th century. Corsica came under the influence of theKingdom of the Lombards and later under the maritime Republics ofPisa andGenoa. In 687, Sicily became the ByzantineTheme of Sicily; during the course of theArab–Byzantine wars, Sicily gradually became theEmirate of Sicily (831–1072). Later, a series of conflicts with theNormans would bring about the establishment of theCounty of Sicily, and eventually theKingdom of Sicily. TheLombards of Sicily (not to be confused with theLongobards), coming fromNorthern Italy, settled in the central and eastern part of Sicily. After the marriage between the NormanRoger I of Sicily andAdelaide del Vasto, descendant of theAleramici family, many Northern Italian colonisers (known collectively asLombards) left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions inPiedmont andLiguria (then known asLombardy), to settle on the island of Sicily.[368][369]
Before them, otherLombards arrived inSicily, with an expedition departed in 1038, led by the Byzantine commanderGeorge Maniakes,[370] which for a very short time managed to snatch Messina andSyracuse fromArab rule. The Lombards who arrived with the Byzantines settled inManiace,Randazzo andTroina, while a group ofGenoese and otherLombards from Liguria settled inCaltagirone.[371]
Map of Tuscan settlements in Sicily
During the subsequentSwabian rule under the Holy Roman EmperorFrederick II, who spent most of his life asking of Sicily in his court inPalermo, Moors were progressively eradicated until the massive deportation of the lastMuslims of Sicily.[372] As a result of the Arab expulsion, many towns across Sicily were left depopulated. By the 12th century, Swabian kings granted immigrants from northern Italy (particularlyPiedmont,Lombardy andLiguria),Latium andTuscany in central Italy, andFrench regions ofNormandy,Provence andBrittany (all collectively known asLombards.)[373][374] settlement into Sicily, re-establishing the Latin element into the island, a legacy which can be seen in the manyGallo-Italic dialects and towns found in the interior and western parts of Sicily, brought by these settlers.[375] It is believed that the Lombard immigrants in Sicily over a couple of centuries were a total of about 200,000.[376][377][378]
An estimated 20,000Swabians and 40,000Normans settled in the southern half of Italy during this period.[379] Additional Tuscan migrants settled in Sicily after the Florentine conquest of Pisa in 1406.[380]
Some of the expelled Muslims were deported toLucera (Lugêrah, as it was known in Arabic). Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000,[381] leading Lucera to be calledLucaera Saracenorum because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of theAngevinCharles II of Naples. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery,[382] with many finding asylum inAlbania across theAdriatic Sea.[383] After the expulsions of Muslims in Lucera, Charles II replaced Lucera's Saracens with Christians, chieflyBurgundian andProvençal soldiers and farmers,[384] following an initial settlement of 140 Provençal families in 1273.[385] A remnant of the descendants of these Provençal colonists, still speaking aFranco-Provençal dialect, has survived until the present day in the villages ofFaeto andCelle di San Vito.
Giuseppe Mazzini(left), highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement; andGiuseppe Garibaldi(right), celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times[386] and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds",[387] who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led toItalian unification
Substantial migrations of Lombards to Naples, Rome and Palermo, continued in the 16th and 17th centuries, driven by the constant overcrowding in the north.[388][389] Beside that, minor but significant settlements ofSlavs (the so-calledSchiavoni) andArbereshe in Italy have been recorded, whileScottish soldiers - theGarde Ecossaise - who served the French King,Francis I, settled in the mountains ofPiedmont.[390][391]
The geographical and cultural proximity with Southern Italy pushed Albanians to cross theStrait of Otranto, especially afterSkanderbeg's death and the conquest of theBalkans by theOttomans. In defense of the Christian religion and in search of soldiers loyal to the Spanish crown,Alfonso V of Aragon, also king of Naples, invited Arbereshe soldiers to move to Italy with their families. In return the king guaranteed to Albanians lots of land and a favourable taxation.
Arbereshe and Schiavoni were used to repopulate abandoned villages or villages whose population had died in earthquakes, plagues and other catastrophes. Albanian soldiers were also used to quell rebellions in Calabria. Slavic colonies were established in easternFriuli,[392]Sicily[393] andMolise (Molise Croats).[394]
Between theLate Middle Ages and theearly modern period, there were several waves of immigration of Albanians into Italy, in addition to another in the 20th century.[395] The descendants of these Albanian emigrants, many still retaining theAlbanian language, theArbëresh dialect, have survived throughout southern Italy, numbering about 260,000 people,[396] with roughly 80,000 to 100,000 speaking the Albanian language.[397][398]
Most ofItaly's surnames (cognomi), with the exception of a few areas marked by linguistic minorities, derive from Italian and arose from an individual's peculiar (physical, etc.) qualities (e.g.Rossi,Bianchi,Quattrocchi,Mancini,Grasso, etc.), occupation (Ferrari,Auditore,Sartori,Tagliabue, etc.), relation of fatherhood or lack thereof (De Pretis,Orfanelli,Esposito,Trovato, etc.), and geographic location (Padovano,Pisano,Leccese,Lucchese, etc.). Some of them also indicate a remote foreign origin (Greco,Tedesco,Moro,Albanese, etc.).
Italian migration outside Italy took place, in different migrating cycles, for centuries.[400] Adiaspora in high numbers took place after Italy's unification in 1861 and continued through 1914 with the beginning of theFirst World War. This rapid outflow and migration of Italian people across the globe can be attributed to factors such as the internal economic slump that emerged alongside Italy's unification, family, and the industrial boom that occurred in the world surrounding Italy.[401][402]
Italy after its unification did not seek nationalism but sought work instead.[401] However, a unified state did not automatically constitute a sound economy. The global economic expansion, ranging from Britain'sIndustrial Revolution in the late 18th and through mid 19th century, to the use of slave labor in the Americas did not hit Italy until much later (with the exception of the "industrial triangle" betweenMilan,Genoa andTurin)[401] This lag resulted in a deficit of work available in Italy and the need to look for work elsewhere. The mass industrialization and urbanization globally resulted in higher labor mobility and the need for Italians to stay anchored to the land for economic support declined.[402]
Moreover, better opportunities for work were not the only incentive to move; family played a major role and the dispersion of Italians globally. Italians were more likely to migrate to countries where they had family established beforehand.[402] These ties are shown to be stronger in many cases than the monetary incentive for migration, taking into account a familial base and possibly an Italian migrant community, greater connections to find opportunities for work, housing etc.[402] Thus, thousands of Italian men and women left Italy and dispersed around the world and this trend only increased as the First World War approached.
Notably, it was not as if Italians had never migrated before; internal migration between North and Southern Italy before unification was common. Northern Italy caught on to industrialization sooner than Southern Italy, therefore it was considered more modern technologically, and tended to be inhabited by the bourgeoisie.[406] Alternatively, rural and agro-intensive Southern Italy was seen as economically backward and was mainly populated by lower class peasantry.[406] Given these disparities, prior to unification (and arguably after) the two sections of Italy, North and South were essentially seen by Italians and other nations as separate countries. So, migrating from one part of Italy to next could be seen as though they were indeed migrating to another country or even continent.[406]
Furthermore, large-scale migrations phenomena did not recede until the late 1920s, well into the Fascist regime, and a subsequent wave can be observed after the end of theSecond World War. Another wave is currently happening due to the ongoingdebt crisis.
Over 80 million people of full or part Italian descent live outside Europe, with about 50 million living inSouth America (mostly inBrazil, which has the largest number of Italian descendants outside Italy,[69] andArgentina, where over 62.5% of the population have at least one Italian ancestor),[7] about 23 million living in North America (United States andCanada) and 1 million in Oceania (Australia andNew Zealand). Others live in other parts of Europe (primarily theUnited Kingdom,Germany,France andSwitzerland).
World map of first level subdivisions (states, counties, provinces, etc.) that are home toLittle Italys or Italian neighbourhoods
A historical Italian community has also existed inGibraltar since the 16th century. To a lesser extent, people of full or partial Italian descent are also found in Africa (most notably in the former Italian colonies ofEritrea, which has 100,000 descendants,[407][408][409]Somalia,Libya,Ethiopia, and in others countries such asSouth Africa, with 77,400 descendants,[5]Tunisia andEgypt), in the Middle East (in recent years theUnited Arab Emirates has maintained a desirable destination for Italian immigrants, with currently 10,000 Italian immigrants), and Asia (Singapore is home to a sizeable Italian community).[5]
Regarding the diaspora, there are many individuals of Italian descent who are possibly eligible for Italian citizenship by method of jus sanguinis, which is from the Latin meaning "by blood". However, just having Italian ancestry is not enough to qualify for Italian citizenship. To qualify, one must have at least one Italian-born citizen ancestor who, after emigrating from Italy to another country, had passed citizenship onto their children before they naturalized as citizens of their newly adopted country. The Italian government does not have a rule regarding on how many generations born outside of Italy can claim Italian nationality.[410]
The majority of Italian nationals are native speakers of the country's official language,Italian, or a variety thereof, that isregional Italian. However, many of them also speak aregional or minority language native to Italy, the existence of which predates the national language.[57][58] Although there is disagreement on the total number, according toUNESCO, there are approximately 30languages native to Italy, although many are often misleadingly referred to as "Italiandialects".[59][48][60][61]
Italian is an official language ofItaly andSan Marino and is spoken fluently by the majority of the countries' populations. Italian is the third most spoken language inSwitzerland (after German and French; seeSwiss Italian), though its use there has moderately declined since the 1970s.[411] It is official both on the national level and on regional level in twocantons:Ticino andGrisons. In the latter canton, however, it is only spoken by a small minority, in theItalian Grisons.[a] Ticino, which includesLugano, the largest Italian-speaking city outside Italy, is the only canton where Italian is predominant.[412] Italian is also used in administration and official documents inVatican City.[413]
Italian is also spoken by a minority inMonaco and France, especially in the southeastern part of the country.[414][415] Italian was the official language inSavoy and inNice until 1860, when they were both annexed by France under theTreaty of Turin, a development that triggered the "Niçard exodus", or the emigration of a quarter of theNiçard Italians to Italy,[416] and theNiçard Vespers. Italian was the official language ofCorsica until 1859.[417] Italian is generally understood in Corsica by the population resident therein who speakCorsican, which is an Italo-Romance idiom similar to Tuscan.[418] Italian was the official language inMonaco until 1860, when it was replaced by the French.[419] This was due to the annexation of the surroundingCounty of Nice to France following theTreaty of Turin (1860).[419]
It formerly had official status inAlbania due to theannexation of the country to the Kingdom of Italy (1939–1943). Albania has a large population of non-native speakers, with over half of the population having some knowledge of the Italian language.[428] The Albanian government has pushed to make Italian a compulsory second language in schools.[429] The Italian language is well-known and studied in Albania,[430] due to its historical ties and geographical proximity to Italy and to the diffusion of Italian television in the country.[431]
Due to heavy Italian influence during theItalian colonial period, Italian is still understood by some in former colonies.[398] Although it was the primary language inLibya sincecolonial rule, Italian greatly declined under therule of Muammar Gaddafi, who expelled theItalian Libyan population and madeArabic the sole official language of the country.[432] A few hundred Italian settlers returned to Libya in the 2000s.
Italian was the official language ofEritrea duringItalian colonisation. Italian is today used in commerce, and it is still spoken especially among elders; besides that, Italian words are incorporated as loan words in the main language spoken in the country (Tigrinya). The capital city of Eritrea,Asmara, still has several Italian schools, established during the colonial period. In the early 19th century, Eritrea was the country with the highest number of Italians abroad, and theItalian Eritreans grew from 4,000 during World War I to nearly 100,000 at the beginning of World War II.[433] In Asmara there are two Italian schools, theItalian School of Asmara (Italian primary school with aMontessori department) and theLiceo Sperimentale "G. Marconi" (Italian international senior high school).
Italian was also introduced toSomalia through colonialism and was the sole official language of administration and education during thecolonial period but fell out of use after government, educational and economic infrastructure were destroyed in theSomali Civil War.
Italian is also spoken by largeimmigrant and expatriate communities in the Americas and Australia.[398] Although over 17 millionAmericans are of Italian descent, only a little over one million people in the United States speak Italian at home.[434] Nevertheless, an Italian language media market does exist in the country.[435] In Canada, Italian is the second most spoken non-official language whenvarieties of Chinese are not grouped together, with 375,645 claiming Italian as theirmother tongue in 2016.[436]
Italian immigrants to South America have also brought a presence of the language to that continent. According to some sources, Italian is the second most spoken language inArgentina[437] after the official language of Spanish, although its number of speakers, mainly of the older generation, is decreasing. Italian bilingual speakers can be found in the Southeast of Brazil as well as in the South, corresponding to 2.07% of the total population of the country.[438] InVenezuela, Italian is the most spoken language after Spanish andPortuguese, with around 200,000 speakers.[439] InUruguay, people that speak Italian as their home language is 1.1% of the total population of the country.[440] In Australia, Italian is the second most spoken foreign language after Chinese, with 1.4% of the population speaking it as their home language.[441]
Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language. In the 21st century, technology also allows for the continual spread of the Italian language, as people have new ways to learn how to speak, read, and write languages at their own pace and at any given time. For example, the free website and applicationDuolingo has 4.94 million English speakers learning the Italian language.[445]
According to theItalian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, every year there are more than 200,000 foreign students who study the Italian language; they are distributed among the 90Institutes of Italian Culture that are located around the world, in the 179 Italian schools located abroad, or in the 111 Italian lecturer sections belonging to foreign schools where Italian is taught as a language of culture.[446]
As of 2022, Australia had the highest number of students learning Italian in the world. This occurred because of support by the Italian community in Australia and the Italian Government and also because of successful educational reform efforts led by local governments in Australia.[447]
From the late 19th to the mid-20th century, thousands of Italians settled in Argentina, Uruguay, Southern Brazil and Venezuela, as well as in Canada and the United States, where they formed a physical and cultural presence.
In some cases, colonies were established where variants of regionallanguages of Italy were used, and some continue to use this regional language. Examples areRio Grande do Sul, Brazil, whereTalian is used, and the town ofChipilo near Puebla, Mexico; each continues to use a derived form ofVenetian dating back to the nineteenth century. Another example isCocoliche, an Italian–Spanishpidgin once spoken inArgentina and especially inBuenos Aires, andLunfardo.
Starting in latemedieval times in much of Europe and the Mediterranean, Latin was replaced as the primary commercial language by Italian language variants (especially Tuscan and Venetian). These variants were consolidated during theRenaissance with the strength of Italy and the rise ofhumanism andthe arts.
During that period, Italy held artistic sway over the rest of Europe. It was the norm for all educated gentlemen to make theGrand Tour, visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It thus became expected to learn at least some Italian. In England, while the classical languagesLatin andGreek were the first to be learned, Italian became the second most common modern language after French, a position it held until the late 18th century when it tended to be replaced by German.John Milton, for instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian.
Within theCatholic Church, Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents.
Italianloanwords continue to be used in most languages in matters of art and music (especially classical music including opera), in the design and fashion industries, in some sports likefootball[448] and especially in culinary terms.
^Italian is the main language of the valleys ofCalanca,Mesolcina,Bregaglia andval Poschiavo. In the village ofMaloja, it is spoken by about half the population. It is also spoken by a minority in the village ofBivio.
^abDepartamento de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas de laUniversidad Nacional de La Matanza (14 November 2011)."Historias de inmigrantes italianos en Argentina".infouniversidades.siu.edu.ar (in Spanish).Se estima que en la actualidad, el 90% de la población argentina tiene alguna ascendencia europea y que al menos 25 millones están relacionados con algún inmigrante de Italia.
^Notargiovanni, Caterina (2017)."Por qué tantos en Venezuela están eligiendo Italia para huir de la crisis" (in Spanish). BBC. Retrieved31 March 2021."Estimamos que hay 2 millones de descendientes de italianos en Venezuela", le explica a BBC Mundo el primer secretario Lorenzo Solinas, encargado de prensa de la Embajada de Italia en Caracas.
^Notargiovanni, Caterina (2017)."Por qué tantos en Venezuela están eligiendo Italia para huir de la crisis" (in Spanish). BBC. Retrieved31 March 2021."Estimamos que hay 2 millones de descendientes de italianos en Venezuela", le explica a BBC Mundo el primer secretario Lorenzo Solinas, encargado de prensa de la Embajada de Italia en Caracas.
^Galileo Galilei, Lettera di Galileo Galilei agl'Illustrissimi e Potentiss. Signori Ordini Generali delle confederate Provincie Belgiche, 1636, in Opere di Galileo Galilei, Società tipografica de' classici italiani, 1811, p. 268
^Related Articles (2 January 2009)."Italian cuisine".Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com.Archived from the original on 16 July 2010. Retrieved24 April 2010.
^Laffi, Umberto (1992). "La provincia della Gallia Cisalpina".Athenaeum (in Italian) (80):5–23.
^Aurigemma, Salvatore."Gallia Cisalpina".treccani.it (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana.Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved14 October 2014.
^Though the modern state of Italy had yet to be established, the Latin equivalent of theterm Italian had been in use for natives ofthe region since antiquity. SeePliny the Elder,Letters 9.23.
^Encyclopædia Britannica, 1993 ed., Vol. 16, pp. 605ff / Morison,Christopher Columbus, 1955 ed., pp. 14ff
^Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002).Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 156.ISBN978-88-04-50946-2.
^Tarozzi, Fiorenza; Vecchio, Giorgio (1999).Gli italiani e il tricolore (in Italian). Il Mulino. pp. 67–68.ISBN88-15-07163-6.
^Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002).Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 157.ISBN978-88-04-50946-2.
^Tarozzi, Fiorenza; Vecchio, Giorgio (1999).Gli italiani e il tricolore (in Italian). Il Mulino. p. 9.ISBN88-15-07163-6.
^Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002).Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 18.ISBN978-88-04-50946-2.
^McGaw Smyth, Howard (September 1948). "Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943-1946)".The Western Political Quarterly.1 (3):205–222.doi:10.2307/442274.JSTOR442274.
^Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, James Jacob, Margaret Jacob, Theodore H. Von Laue (1 January 2012). Western Civilization: Since 1400. Cengage Learning. p. XXIX.ISBN978-1-111-83169-1.
^"England's National Symbols". england.org.za. Archived fromthe original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved18 September 2012.National symbols are defined as the symbols or icons of a national community (such as England), used to represent that community in a way that unites its people.
^ab"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved24 February 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Of this second rootDario Fo he speaks of a true alternative culture to the official one: although widespread as an idea, some scholars such asGiovanni Antonucci [it] do not agree in considering it as such. In this regard, seeAntonucci, Giovanni (1995).Storia del teatro italiano (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. pp. 10–14.ISBN978-8879839747.
^Antonucci, Giovanni (1995).Storia del teatro italiano (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. p. 18.ISBN978-8879839747.
^Chaffee, Judith; Crick, Olly (2015).The Routledge Companion to Commedia Dell'Arte. London and New York: Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group. p. 1.ISBN978-0-415-74506-2.
^Kuzmick Hansell, Kathleen (1980).Opera and Ballet at the Regio Ducal Teatro of Milan, 1771-1776: A Musical and Social History. Vol. I. University of California. p. 200.[ISBN unspecified]
^Several Italian encyclopaedias claim Meucci as the inventor of the telephone, including: – the "Treccani"[2]Archived 11 August 2017 at theWayback Machine– the Italian version of Microsoft digital encyclopaedia, Encarta.–Enciclopedia Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti (Italian Encyclopedia of Science, Literature and Arts).
^Orlando, Lucia (1998). "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the "New Tasks" of Physics in Italy".Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences.29 (1):141–181.doi:10.2307/27757806.JSTOR27757806.
^Ricci-Curbastro, Gregorio (1918),Lezioni di Analisi algebrica ed infinitesimale (1926 ed.), Padova: Tip. Universitaria
^McGaw Smyth, Howard (September 1948). "Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943-1946)".The Western Political Quarterly.1 (3):205–222.doi:10.2307/442274.JSTOR442274.
^ab"Cinematografia",Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. III,Treccani, 1970, p. 226
^Andrea Fioravanti (2006).La "storia" senza storia. Racconti del passato tra letteratura, cinema e televisione (in Italian). Morlacchi Editore. p. 121.ISBN978-88-6074-066-3.
^Robert K. Klepper (1999).Silent Films, 1877-1996: A Critical Guide to 646 Movies. McFarland. p. 78.ISBN978-0-7864-0595-4.
^Patrick Robertson (1991).Guinness Book of Movie Facts and Feats. Abbeville Press. p. 217.ISBN978-1-55859-236-0.
^John Alberti (2014).Screen Ages: A Survey of American Cinema. Routledge. p. 45.ISBN978-1-317-65028-7.
^Bondyopadhyay, Prebir K. (1995). "Guglielmo Marconi – The father of long distance radio communication – An engineer's tribute".25th European Microwave Conference, 1995. p. 879.doi:10.1109/EUMA.1995.337090.S2CID6928472.
^Raveane, Alessandro; Montinaro, Francesco; Capelli, Cristian (2019)."Un ritratto genetico degli italiani". Scienza in rete.Archived from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved4 November 2019.
^Pina Polo, Francisco (2009). "Deportation of Indigenous Population as a Strategy for Roman Dominion in Hispania". In Morillo, Ángel; Hanel, Norbert; Martín, Esperanza (eds.).Limes XX – 20th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Leon 2006. Anejos de Gladius; 13.1. Vol. 1. Madrid: Ediciones Polifemo. pp. 281–8.ISBN9788400088545.Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved3 December 2017.
^Marcus JH, Posth C, Ringbauer H, Lai L, Skeates R, Sidore C, et al. (February 2020). "Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 939. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11..939M. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-14523-6. PMC 7039977. PMID 32094358
^«Sicily and Southern Italy were heavily colonized by Greeks beginning in the eight to ninth century B.C.. The demographic development of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy was remarkable, and in classical times this region was calledMagna Graecia (Great Greece) because it probably surpassed in numbers the Greek population of the motherland.»Cavalli-Sforza L, Menozzi P, Piazza A (1994).The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press. p. 278.ISBN978-0-691-08750-4.
^Haak W, Lazaridis I, Patterson N, Rohland N, Mallick S, Llamas B, et al. (June 2015). "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe". Nature. 522 (7555): 207–11. arXiv:1502.02783. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. doi:10.1038/nature14317. PMC 5048219. PMID 25731166.
^Di Gaetano C, Voglino F, Guarrera S, Fiorito G, Rosa F, Di Blasio AM, et al. (2012). "An overview of the genetic structure within the Italian population from genome-wide data". PLOS ONE. 7 (9): e43759. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...743759D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043759. PMC 3440425. PMID 22984441
^Paschou P, Drineas P, Yannaki E, Razou A, Kanaki K, Tsetsos F, et al. (June 2014). "Maritime route of colonization of Europe". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (25): 9211–6. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.9211P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320811111. PMC 4078858. PMID 24927591
^Dupanloup I, Bertorelle G, Chikhi L, Barbujani G (July 2004). "Estimating the impact of prehistoric admixture on the genome of Europeans".Molecular Biology and Evolution.21 (7):1361–72.doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135.PMID15044595.
^Saupe et al. 2021 "The results suggest that the Steppe-related ancestry component could have first arrived through Late N/Bell Beaker groups fromCentral Europe."
^Kruta, Venceslas (1991).The Celts. Thames and Hudson. pp. 89–102.
^Stifter, David (2008).Old Celtic Languages - Addenda. p. 25.
^Nicholas Hammond, Howard Scullard. Dizionario di antichità classiche. Milano, Edizioni San Paolo, 1995, p.1836-1836.ISBN88-215-3024-8.
^"ELMO CELTICO".ARCHEOLOGIA GALLIA CISALPINA (in Italian). Retrieved20 March 2022.
^Cornell, T. J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome. p43
^Goring, Elizabeth (2004).Treasures from Tuscany: the Etruscan legacy. Edinburgh: National Museums Scotland Enterprises Limited. p. 13.ISBN978-1901663907.
^Leighton, Robert (2004).Tarquinia. An Etruscan City. Duckworth Archaeological Histories Series. London: Duckworth Press. p. 32.ISBN0-7156-3162-4.
^Camporeale, Giovannangelo, ed. (2001).The Etruscans Outside Etruria. Translated by Hartmann, Thomas Michael. Los Angeles: Getty Trust Publications (published 2004).
^Tassi F, Ghirotto S, Caramelli D, Barbujani G, et al. (2013). "Genetic evidence does not support an Etruscan origin in Anatolia".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.152 (1):11–18.doi:10.1002/ajpa.22319.PMID23900768.
^Leonardi, Michela; Sandionigi, Anna; Conzato, Annalisa; Lari, Martina; Tassi, Francesca (2018). "The female ancestor's tale: Long-term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.167 (3):497–506.doi:10.1002/ajpa.23679.PMID30187463.S2CID52161000.
^Antonio, Margaret L.; Gao, Ziyue; M. Moots, Hannah (2019)."Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean".Science.366 (6466). Washington D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science (published 8 November 2019):708–714.Bibcode:2019Sci...366..708A.doi:10.1126/science.aay6826.hdl:2318/1715466.PMC7093155.PMID31699931.Interestingly, although Iron Age individuals were sampled from both Etruscan (n=3) and Latin (n=6) contexts, we did not detect any significant differences between the two groups with f4 statistics in the form of f4(RMPR_Etruscan, RMPR_Latin; test population, Onge), suggesting shared origins or extensive genetic exchange between them.
^Karl Viktor Müllenhoff,Deutsche Alterthurnskunde, I volume.
^abStrabo,Geography, book 2, chapter 5, section 28.
^Dominique François Louis Roget de Belloguet,Ethnogénie gauloise, ou Mémoires critiques sur l'origine et la parenté des Cimmériens, des Cimbres, des Ombres, des Belges, des Ligures et des anciens Celtes. Troisiéme partie:Preuves intellectuelles. Le génie gaulois, Paris 1868.
^Gilberto OnetoPaesaggio e architettura delle regioni padano-alpine dalle origini alla fine del primo millennio, Priuli e Verlucc, editori 2002, pp. 34–36, 49.
^See, in particularMcEvedy, Colin (1967).The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History by Colin McEvedy. p. 29.
^Leonard Robert Palmer, The Latin Language, London: Faber and Faber, 1954, p. 54
^Sciarretta, Antonio (2010).Toponomastica d'Italia. Nomi di luoghi, storie di popoli antichi. Milano: Mursia. pp. 174–194.ISBN978-88-425-4017-5.
^According, among others, to:Prosdocimi, Aldo Luigi (1993).Popoli e civiltà dell'Italia antica (in Italian). Vol. 6/1. Spazio Tre. Cf.Villar, Francisco (2008).Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell'Europa (in Italian). Il Mulino. p. 490.
^P. A. Brunt, Italian manpower, 225 B.C.-A.D. 14, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 52
^abLa popolazione del Mondo Greco-Romano, Karl Julius Beloch
^Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol. 1, Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. 1854. p. 4
^Luuk De Ligt,Peasants, Citizens and Soldiers: Studies in the Demographic History of Roman Italy 225 BC – AD 100. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012. p. 43-44
^A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol. 3, London. John Murray: printed by Spottiswoode and Co., New-Street Square and Parliament Streetp. 661
^M. Rostovtzeff,A History of the Ancient World: Rome, Vol. II, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927, p. 171
^Alfred S. Bradford,With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World, Praeger Publishers, 2001, p. 191
^Staveley, ES (1989). "Rome and Italy in the Early Third Century". In Walbank, Frank William (ed.).The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. VII: the Hellenistic World: Part 2: The Rise of Rome to 220 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 425.Certainly, steps designed to consolidate her hold in the north-east followed this incident in quick succession: the foundation in 268 of the Latin colony of Ariminum .... the annexation of the whole Picentine land save for … Ancona and … Asculum; the transportation of large numbers of Picentes to theager Picentinus on the west coast, and finally in 264 the planting of a second large Latin colony on the coast at Firmum.
^Ettore Pais,Ancient Italy: Historical and Geographical Investigations in Central Italy, Magna Graecia, Sicily, and Sardinia, The University of Chicago Press, 1908
^Patrick Bruun, Studies in the romanization of Etruria, Vol. 1–7, p. 101
^Frank N. Magill,The Middle Ages: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 2, Salem Press, Inc. 1998, p. 895.
^William A. Sumruld,Augustine and the Arians: The Bishop of Hippo's Encounters with Ulfilan Arianism, Associated Press University Presses 1994, p. 23.
^Delbr_ck, Hans (1990).The barbarian invasions. U of Nebraska Press. p. 286.
^De Bello Gothico IV 32, pp. 241–245; this reference stems from the pen of the Byzantine historian, Procopius, who accompanied Justinian's leading general, Belisarius, on his exploits between 527 and 540. This included the campaigns against the Ostrogoths, which is the subject ofDe Bello Gothico.
^Antonio Santosuosso,Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare, Westview Press 2004, p. 44.
^Corbanese, G. G. (1983).Il Friuli, Trieste e l'Istria: dalla Preistoria alla caduta del Patriarcato d'Aquileia (Grande Atlante Cronologico ed.). Udine: Del Bianco.
^These Lombard colonisers were natives from Northern Italy and should not be confused with theLombard Germanic tribe, who were referred to asLongobardi to distinguish them from the locals of the region who were known asLombardi.
^Jules Gay,L'Italie meridionale et l'empire Byzantin, Parigi 1904, vol. II, p. 450-453.
^David Abulafia,Le due Italie: relazioni economiche fra il regno normanno di Sicilia e i comuni settentrionali, Cambridge University Press 1977 (trad. it. Guida Editori, Napoli 1991), p. 114.
^Società Siciliana per la Storia Patria. Archivio Storico Siciliano (12 December 1876)."Archivio Storico Siciliano". Palermo. Retrieved12 December 2017 – via Internet Archive.
^Barone, Francesco (2003). "Islām in Sicilia nel XII e XIII secolo: ortoprassi, scienze religiose e tasawwuf". In Di Bella, Saverio; Tomasello, Dario (eds.).L'Islam in Europa tra passato e futuro. Cosenza: Pellegrini Editore. p. 104.ISBN88-8101-159-X.
^According to the most credible hypothesis this settlement dates back to a period between the eleventh century and the thirteenth century. Cfr.Toso, Fiorenzo (2008).Le minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino. p. 137.ISBN978-88-15-12677-1.
^abcdMoretti, Enrico (1 January 1999). "Social Networks and Migrations: Italy 1876-1913".The International Migration Review.33 (3):640–657.doi:10.2307/2547529.JSTOR2547529.
^Departamento de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas de laUniversidad Nacional de La Matanza (14 November 2011)."Historias de inmigrantes italianos en Argentina" (in Spanish). infouniversidades.siu.edu.ar.Se estima que en la actualidad, el 90% de la población argentina tiene alguna ascendencia europea y que al menos 25 millones están relacionados con algún inmigrante de Italia.
^The Italian Ambassador stated at the 2008 Film Festival in Asmara[3]Archived 2012-02-18 at theWayback Machine that nearly 100,000 Eritreans in 2008 have Italian blood, because they have at least one grandfather or great-grandfather from Italy.
^"Europeans and their Languages"(PDF). European Commission: Directorate General for Education and Culture and Directorate General Press and Communication. February 2006.Archived(PDF) from the original on 3 August 2008. Retrieved28 June 2013.
^Hull, Geoffrey,The Malta Language Question: A Case Study in Cultural Imperialism, Valletta: Said International, 1993.
^Longo, Maurizio (2007)."La lingua italiana in Albania"(PDF).Education et Sociétés Plurilingues (in Italian) (22):51–56.Archived(PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved28 July 2014.Today, even though for political reasons English is the most widely taught foreign language in Albanian schools, Italian is anyway the most widespread foreign language.
^"Brazil".Ethnologue.Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved6 June 2018.
^Bernasconi, Giulia (2012)."L'ITALIANO IN VENEZUELA".Italiano LinguaDue (in Italian).3 (2). Università degli Studi di Milano: 20.doi:10.13130/2037-3597/1921.Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved22 January 2017.L'italiano come lingua acquisita o riacquisita è largamente diffuso in Venezuela: recenti studi stimano circa 200.000 studenti di italiano nel Paese
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