Since ancient times, the Italian peninsula has been home to diverse civilizations: theGreeks in the south, theEtruscans in the centre, and theCelts in the north. The numerousRock Drawings in Valcamonica date back as far as 8,000 BC. Rich artistic remains survive from the Etruscan civilization, including thousands of tombs, as well as from the Greek colonies atPaestum,Agrigento, and other sites. With the rise ofAncient Rome, Italy became the cultural and political centre of a vast empire. Roman ruins across the country are extraordinarily rich, from the grand imperial monuments ofRome to the remarkably preserved everyday architecture ofPompeii and neighbouring sites.
Following thefall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy remained an important artistic centre throughout theMiddle Ages. The country saw significant contributions toCarolingian art,Ottonian art, andNorman art, as well as the flourishing ofByzantine art in cities such asRavenna.
Italy was the main centre of artistic innovation during theItalian Renaissance (c. 1300–1600), beginning with theProto-Renaissance ofGiotto and culminating in theHigh Renaissance with artists such asLeonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo,Raphael, andAntonello da Messina. These artists influenced the development ofMannerism, the next phase of Renaissance art. Italy retained its artistic prominence into the 17th century during theBaroque period (c. 1600–1750) and into the 18th century with the emergence ofNeoclassicism (c. 1750–1850). Both movements originated in Rome[4][5] and spread throughoutWestern art.
From the mid-19th century onward, Italy maintained a presence in the international art scene through movements such as theMacchiaioli,Futurism,Metaphysical art,Novecento Italiano,Spatialism,Arte Povera, andTransavantgarde.
Italian art has profoundly influenced many major artistic movements across the centuries and has produced numerous renowned painters, sculptors, and architects. Today, Italy continues to play a vital role in the global art scene, with major galleries, museums, and exhibitions. Key artistic centres includeRome,Florence,Venice,Milan,Turin,Genoa,Naples,Palermo,Syracuse and other cities. Italy ishome to 61World Heritage Sites, the highest number of any country in the world.
Etruscan bronze figures and terracotta funerary reliefs exemplify a vigorous Central Italian artistic tradition that declined by the time Rome began expanding its dominance over the peninsula.
The Etruscan paintings that have survived into modern times are predominantly wall frescoes found in tombs, especially in the necropolises ofTarquinia. These works represent the most significant examples of pre-Roman figurative art in Italy known to scholars.
Etruscan frescoes were painted onto wet plaster—a technique known as fresco—which allowed the pigments to bond with the plaster as it dried, thereby enhancing their durability. In fact, nearly all surviving Etruscan and Roman paintings are in this medium. The colours were made by grinding stones and minerals into pigments and mixing them with a binding medium. Fine brushes, often made from ox hair, were used to apply the paint.
From the mid-4th century BC onward, Etruscan artists began employingchiaroscuro techniques to suggest depth and volume. While some frescoes depict scenes of daily life, mythological themes are more common. Notably, Etruscan frescoes generally lack accurate anatomical proportion, and figures often display exaggerated or stylized features.
One of the most famous examples of Etruscan painting is theTomb of the Lioness in Tarquinia.
The Etruscans were responsible for constructing some of Rome's earliest monumental buildings, and Roman temples and houses were initially modeled closely on Etruscan prototypes. Etruscan influence is evident in Roman temples, particularly in the use of a raised podium and the strong emphasis on the front façade over the remaining three sides. Similarly, large Etruscan houses were organized around a central hall, a layout later adopted in Roman domestic architecture as theatrium house.
Etruscan architectural influence gradually declined during the Roman Republic, as Rome increasingly absorbed elements from the broader Mediterranean world, especiallyGreek architecture. Since Etruscan architecture was itself influenced by the Greeks, the Roman adoption of Hellenistic styles was not an abrupt cultural shift. From the 3rd century BC onward, especially after the Roman conquest of Syracuse in 211 BC, a significant influx of Greek artworks and craftsmen entered Rome, exerting a decisive influence on Roman architectural development. By the timeVitruvius composed his architectural treatiseDe Architectura in the 1st century BC, Greek architectural theory and models had become dominant.
As the Roman Empire expanded, Roman architectural styles spread widely and were used for both public structures and, in wealthier cases, private residences. While local tastes influenced decorative details, the overall style remained distinctly Roman. In many regions, Roman and indigenous architectural elements coexisted within individual buildings, reflecting a syncretic vernacular tradition.
By the 1st century AD,Rome had become the largest and most advanced city in the world. The Romans developed innovative technologies to improve urban infrastructure, including sanitation, transportation, and construction. They engineered extensive aqueduct systems to supply the city with freshwater and constructed sewers to manage waste. While the wealthiest Romans resided in large, gardened villas, the majority of the population lived in multi-story apartment blocks made from stone, concrete, and brick.
Roman engineers discovered that mixing volcanic ash from Pozzuoli (near Naples) with lime and water produced an exceptionally durable form of cement. This allowed them to develop robust concrete structures, including large apartment buildings known asinsulae.
Wealthy homes were often decorated with elaborate wall paintings depicting garden landscapes, mythological or historical narratives, and scenes of daily life. Floors were adorned with intricate mosaics composed of small, colored tiles arranged into decorative patterns or figural imagery. These artworks not only enhanced the brightness and apparent spaciousness of rooms but also served to display the owner's social status and cultural sophistication.[6]
In the Christian period of the late Empire (c. 350–500 AD), wall painting, floor and ceiling mosaics, and funerary sculpture continued to flourish, while free-standing sculpture and panel painting declined—likely due to changing religious sensibilities.[7] AfterConstantine the Great moved the imperial capital toByzantium (renamedConstantinople), Roman art absorbed Eastern influences, giving rise to theByzantine style. Following thesack of Rome in the 5th century, many artisans relocated to the Eastern capital. Under EmperorJustinian I, Roman artistic traditions reached a final, monumental expression with the construction of theHagia Sophia and the creation of the famed mosaics ofRavenna, which employed thousands of craftsmen.[8]
Throughout theMiddle Ages, Italian art primarily took the form of architectural decoration, especially frescoes and mosaics.Byzantine art in Italy was characterized by a highly formalized and refined aesthetic, marked by standardized iconography, stylized figures, and the lavish use of gold and vivid color.
Until the 13th century, Italian art remained largely regional in character, shaped by a combination of local traditions and influences from both Western Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean. Around 1250, however, artistic developments across different Italian regions began to exhibit shared characteristics, leading to a growing sense of unity and the emergence of distinctively original styles.
Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire—later known as theByzantine Empire—continued to thrive for nearly a thousand years, with its capital atConstantinople.[9] Byzantine artisans were frequently employed on major artistic projects throughout Italy, and the influence of Byzantine aesthetics led to the development of theItalo-Byzantine style, which persisted in various forms into the 14th century.
The Italo-Byzantine style typically refers to religious paintings that imitate standard Byzantineiconography but were executed by Italian artists without formal training in Byzantine techniques. These works often feature subjects such as theMadonna and Child, rendered ongold ground panels. They introduced the format of small, portable framed paintings to Western Europe and played a central role in the devotional practices of the period.
This style dominated Italian painting until the late 13th century, when artists likeCimabue andGiotto began to forge a more naturalistic and emotionally expressive approach, particularly in Florence. Nevertheless, Italo-Byzantine painting continued to be produced in some regions and religious contexts well into the 15th century and beyond.[10]
Duecento is the Italian term referring to the 13th century, a formative period in Italian cultural and artistic history. During this time,Gothic architecture, which had originated in northern Europe, began to spread into Italy, particularly in the northern regions. However, Italian Gothic developed distinctive local variations, often more restrained and less vertically ambitious than its northern counterparts.
Two major religious orders—theDominicans, founded bySaint Dominic, and theFranciscans, founded byFrancis of Assisi—gained widespread popularity and financial support in this period. These mendicant orders undertook extensive church-building projects, often adopting simplified versions of Gothic architecture suited to their preaching missions and vows of poverty.
The use of large-scalefresco cycles became widespread during the Duecento, as frescoes were both cost-effective and useful for conveying religious narratives to largely illiterate congregations. A landmark example is theBasilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, a complex structure comprising two superimposed churches built on a hillside and begun shortly after Francis's canonization in 1228. The basilica was adorned with frescoes by many of the leading painters of the period, includingCimabue,Giotto,Simone Martini,Pietro Lorenzetti, and possiblyPietro Cavallini.
These artistic developments laid the groundwork for the innovations of theTrecento and the laterItalian Renaissance.
Trecento is the Italian term referring to the 14th century, a pivotal period in the development of Italian culture and art. It is often regarded as the beginning of theItalian Renaissance, or more specifically, theProto-Renaissance, a transitional phase that laid the groundwork for the innovations of the 15th century.
The most significant painter of the Trecento wasGiotto di Bondone, whose work marked a decisive break from the stylized forms of the Italo-Byzantine tradition, introducing greater naturalism, expressive emotion, and a sense of three-dimensional space.
TheSienese School of painting also flourished during this period and was arguably the most prominent artistic center in Italy in the 14th century. Key figures includedDuccio di Buoninsegna, whoseMaestà is a landmark of early Italian panel painting;Simone Martini, known for his refined Gothic elegance;Lippo Memmi; and the brothersAmbrogio andPietro Lorenzetti, who expanded narrative complexity and spatial experimentation in fresco.
In sculpture, notable artists includedArnolfo di Cambio andTino di Camaino, both pupils ofGiovanni Pisano, as well asBonino da Campione.
During the Middle Ages, painters and sculptors sought to convey a spiritual quality in their work. Artistic emphasis was placed on religious symbolism and conveying the sacred nature of Christian subjects, often at the expense of realistic representation. The goal was to inspire devotion and elevate the viewer’s thoughts toward the divine.
In contrast, Renaissance painters and sculptors, much like Renaissance writers, aimed to depict people and nature with greater realism. Influenced by the study of classical antiquity, they embraced observation, proportion, anatomy, and perspective to create more lifelike and emotionally resonant works. Figures were rendered with naturalistic detail and individuality, and compositions often incorporated settings inspired by real landscapes or classical architecture.
While medieval architects designed towering cathedrals to evoke the majesty of God and the humility of humanity, Renaissance architects turned to classical Roman models, emphasizing harmony, balance, and human-scale proportions. Buildings were designed according to mathematical ratios derived from the human body, as exemplified in the writings ofVitruvius and in works likeLeon Battista Alberti’sDe re aedificatoria. Ornamentation drew heavily from ancient Roman motifs such as columns, pilasters, friezes, and domes.
During the early 14th century, the Florentine painterGiotto di Bondone became the first artist since antiquity to depict nature and the human form in a convincingly realistic manner. He produced influential frescoes for churches in Assisi, Florence, Padua, and Rome. Giotto sought to render figures with a sense of physical presence and emotional expression, placing them in spatially coherent and naturalistic settings.
A remarkable group ofFlorentine artists—including the painterMasaccio, the sculptorDonatello, and the architectFilippo Brunelleschi—emerged in the early 15th century, laying the foundations of the High Renaissance.
Masaccio's finest work is a series of frescoes painted around 1427 in theBrancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. These frescoes depict Biblical scenes with dramatic realism and emotional gravity. Masaccio was among the first to apply Brunelleschi's recently developed system of linear perspective, allowing for more convincing spatial depth in painting.
Donatello revolutionized sculpture by reintroducing the classical ideals of the human form and individual expression. His works display a remarkable attention to anatomy and psychological depth. Among his most celebrated pieces is the bronze statue of David, completed in the 1430s. Standing approximately 5 feet (1.5 meters) tall, it is notable as the first life-sized, free-standing nude statue created in Western art since antiquity.
Brunelleschi was the first major Renaissance architect to systematically revive the forms and principles of ancient Roman architecture. He incorporated classical elements such as arches, columns, and harmonious proportions into his designs. One of his finest achievements is thePazzi Chapel in Florence, begun in 1442 and completed around 1465, which exemplifies clarity, balance, and classical restraint. Brunelleschi also pioneered the use oflinear perspective, a mathematical method for rendering three-dimensional space on a flat surface.
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The arts of the late 15th century and early 16th century were dominated by three extraordinary figures:Leonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo, andRaphael.
Leonardo da Vinci produced two of the most iconic works of Renaissance art: the wall paintingThe Last Supper and the portraitMona Lisa. Leonardo was renowned not only for his art but also for his insatiable curiosity and scientific exploration. He meticulously studied the human body, producing detailed anatomical drawings, and he created thousands of pages of sketches and notes in which he documented his observations of nature, machines, and the human form. Leonardo's deep intellectual engagement with the world made him the quintessential Renaissance man and a symbol of the era's spirit of learning and discovery.[11]
Michelangelo was a master of many disciplines: painting, sculpture, architecture, and poetry. Widely regarded as one of the greatest sculptors in history,[12] Michelangelo's skill in portraying the human body is exemplified in his sculptures, such as the iconic statue ofDavid (1501–1504), which conveys both physical beauty and intense psychological depth. He also painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling between 1508 and 1512, creating one of the most celebrated masterpieces of Western art. These frescoes depict Biblical and classical subjects and are renowned for their powerful representation of the human form and spiritual intensity.
Raphael's paintings are known for their harmonious composition, soft outlines, and graceful use of color. He was a master of perspective and proportion and is particularly famous for his Madonnas and portraits. One of his greatest works is the frescoThe School of Athens, a grand depiction of classical Greek philosophers and scientists. The work reflects Raphael's admiration for classical antiquity, blending elements of ancient Greek and Roman art with the intellectual climate of the Renaissance.
The architectDonato Bramante is often regarded as the creator of High Renaissance architecture. In 1499, he moved to Rome, where he began his work with the design of theTempietto (1502), a small, centralized dome structure that draws inspiration from Classical temple architecture. Pope Julius II appointed Bramante as the papal architect, and together they devised a plan to replace the 4th-century Old St. Peter's Basilica with a new, grand church. Though Bramante's vision was not completed in his lifetime, his designs had a profound influence on the development of Renaissance architecture.
Mannerism was an elegant, courtly style that emerged in the later stages of theItalian Renaissance. It flourished particularly in Florence, Italy, where prominent figures such asGiorgio Vasari andAgnolo Bronzino were key representatives. The style was later introduced to the French court byRosso Fiorentino andFrancesco Primaticcio. The Venetian painterTintoretto was also influenced by Mannerism.
Mannerism's characteristic approach to painting, with elongated figures, exaggerated poses, and artificial compositions, influenced other art forms as well. In architecture,Giulio Romano is one of the most notable examples of Mannerist influence. The Italian sculptorBenvenuto Cellini and the Flemish-bornGiambologna were central figures in Mannerist sculpture, known for their dynamic and often exaggerated forms.[13]
Some historians view Mannerism as a decline or distortion of High Renaissance classicism, while others consider it an independent, complete style in its own right. The period is generally dated from around 1520 to 1600, often seen as an intermediary between the High Renaissance and the Baroque era.
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In the early 17th century, Rome became the center of a revival of Italian dominance in the arts. In Parma,Antonio da Correggio decorated church vaults with lively figures floating softly on clouds—an approach that would profoundly influence Baroque ceiling paintings. The dramatic chiaroscuro paintings ofCaravaggio and the robust, illusionistic works of the BologneseCarracci family marked the beginning of the Baroque period in Italian art.Domenichino,Francesco Albani, and laterAndrea Sacchi were among those who explored the classical implications of the Carracci's influence.
On the other hand, artists such asGuido Reni,Guercino,Orazio Gentileschi,Giovanni Lanfranco, and laterPietro da Cortona andAndrea Pozzo, though grounded in classical and allegorical traditions, initially painted dynamic compositions filled with gesticulating figures in a manner reminiscent of Caravaggio's style. The towering virtuoso of Baroque exuberance and grandeur in both sculpture and architecture wasGian Lorenzo Bernini. By around 1640, many painters began gravitating towards the classical style promoted by the French expatriateNicolas Poussin in Rome. Sculptors likeAlessandro Algardi andFrançois Duquesnoy also aligned themselves with the classical ideals.
Notable late Baroque artists include the GenoeseGiovanni Battista Gaulli and NeapolitansLuca Giordano andFrancesco Solimena.
The leading figures of the 18th century hailed from Venice. Among them were the brilliant exponent of the Rococo style,Giovanni Battista Tiepolo; architectural painters such asFrancesco Guardi,Canaletto,Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, andBernardo Bellotto; and the engraver of Roman antiquities,Giovanni Battista Piranesi.
Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the broader Neoclassicism movement and lasted longer than its counterparts in other European nations. It developed in opposition to theBaroque style around c. 1750 and persisted until c. 1850. The movement emerged during the rediscovery ofPompeii and spread throughout Europe as a generation of art students returned from theirGrand Tour in Italy, influenced by the revived Greco-Roman ideals.
Like other European variants, Italian Neoclassical art was primarily based on the principles ofAncient Roman andAncient Greek art and architecture. However, it also drew on the ItalianRenaissance architecture and its foundational ideas, as seen in works like theVilla Capra "La Rotonda".[14] Classicism and Neoclassicism in Italian art and architecture also have deep roots in theItalian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs ofLeon Battista Alberti and the work ofFilippo Brunelleschi.
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Neoclassical art emphasizedsymmetry,proportion, geometry, and the regularity of parts, inspired by the architecture of Classical antiquity, particularlyAncient Rome. Key architectural elements included orderly arrangements ofcolumns,pilasters,lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemisphericaldomes,niches, andaedicules. These replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles ofmedieval buildings. This style quickly spread across Italy and later to the rest of continental Europe.
Neoclassicism initially centered in Rome, where artists likeAntonio Canova andJacques-Louis David were active during the second half of the 18th century, before the movement spread to Paris. Painters ofVedute, such asCanaletto andGiovanni Paolo Panini, enjoyed significant success during the Grand Tour. The sculptorAntonio Canova became a leading exponent of the Neoclassical style, achieving international fame and being regarded as the most brilliant sculptor of his time.[15]Francesco Hayez is considered the foremost Italian exponent ofRomanticism, with many of his works, often set in medieval contexts, containing encrypted patriotic messages related to theRisorgimento. Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, following theRenaissance andBaroque, to spread across all of Western art.
Italy produced its own form ofImpressionism, known as theMacchiaioli movement, which preceded the more famous Impressionist artists in France. Key figures of the movement includedGiovanni Fattori,Silvestro Lega,Telemaco Signorini, andGiuseppe Abbati. The Macchiaioli artists are considered forerunners to Impressionism, as they emphasized the importance of light and shadow, ormacchie (literally "patches" or "spots"), as the central elements of their works. The termmacchia was commonly used by 19th-century Italian artists and critics to describe the vibrant, sketchy, and spontaneous quality in a painting or drawing, or to highlight the harmonious, broad effect in a composition.
A hostile review published on 3 November 1862, in the journalGazzetta del Popolo, marks the first recorded use of the termMacchiaioli.[16] The term carried several connotations: it mockingly suggested that the artists' finished works were no more than sketches, and also alluded to the phrase "darsi alla macchia," which idiomatically meant to "hide in the bushes or scrubland." The artists often worked outdoors in such environments, which contributed to this association. Furthermore, the name implied that the Macchiaioli were outlaws, reflecting the traditionalists' view that these new artists were working outside the established rules and conventions of the art world at the time.
In the early 20th century, exponents of Futurism developed a dynamic vision of the modern world, whileGiorgio de Chirico expressed a strange metaphysical quietude.Amedeo Modigliani became associated with the School of Paris. Notable later modern Italian artists include the sculptorsGiacomo Manzù andMarino Marini, the still-life painterGiorgio Morandi, and the iconoclastic painterLucio Fontana. In the second half of the 20th century, Italian designers, particularly those based in Milan, profoundly influenced international styles with their imaginative and functional works.
Futurism was an Italian art movement that flourished from 1909 to around 1916. It was the first of many art movements that sought to break with the past in all areas of life. Futurism glorified the power, speed, and excitement characteristic of the machine age. The Futurists learned from French Cubist painters and multiple-exposure photography to break up realistic forms into multiple images and overlapping fragments of color. By such means, they sought to portray the energy and speed of modern life. In literature, Futurism demanded the abolition of traditional sentence structures and verse forms.[18]
Futurism was first announced on 20 February 1909 when the Paris newspaperLe Figaro published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editorFilippo Tommaso Marinetti. (See theManifesto of Futurism.) Marinetti coined the word "Futurism" to reflect his goal of discarding the art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and innovation in culture and society. His manifesto glorified the new technology of theautomobile and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement. Exalting violence and conflict, Marinetti called for the sweeping repudiation of traditional values and the destruction of cultural institutions such as museums and libraries. The manifesto's rhetoric was passionately bombastic, and its aggressive tone was deliberately intended to inspire public anger and arouse controversy.
Marinetti's manifesto inspired a group of young painters in Milan to apply Futurist ideas to the visual arts.Umberto Boccioni,Carlo Carrà,Luigi Russolo,Giacomo Balla, andGino Severini published several manifestos on painting in 1910. Like Marinetti, they glorified originality and expressed disdain for inherited artistic traditions.
Boccioni also became interested insculpture, publishing a manifesto on the subject in the spring of 1912. He is considered to have most fully realized his theories in two sculptures:Development of a Bottle in Space (1912), in which he represented both the inner and outer contours of a bottle, andUnique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913), in which a human figure is not portrayed as one solid form but is instead composed of multiple planes that represent the space through which the figure moves.
Futurist principles extended to architecture as well.Antonio Sant'Elia formulated a Futurist manifesto on architecture in 1914. His visionary drawings of highly mechanized cities and boldly modern skyscrapers prefigure some of the most imaginative architectural planning of the 20th century.
Boccioni, who had been the most talented artist in the group,[19] and Sant'Elia both died during military service in 1916. Boccioni's death, combined with the expansion of the group's personnel and the sobering realities of the devastation caused byWorld War I, effectively brought an end to Futurism as an important historical force in the visual arts.
Metaphysical painting is an Italian art movement that originated in 1917 with the work of Carlo Carrà andGiorgio de Chirico in Ferrara. The term "metaphysical," adopted by De Chirico himself, is central to the poetics of the movement.
The movement is characterized by dreamlike imagery, with figures and objects seemingly frozen in time. Artists associated with Metaphysical painting embraced the representation of the visible world through traditional perspective, but with an unusual arrangement of human figures, which often appear as lifeless models, and objects placed in strange, illogical contexts. These works are marked by unreal lighting, unnatural color schemes, and the stillness of figures that contribute to a sense of eerie timelessness.
TheNovecento movement was a group of Italian artists formed in 1922 in Milan, advocating for a return to the great Italian representational art of the past.
The founding members of the Novecento movement (Italian: "20th-century") were the criticMargherita Sarfatti and seven artists:Anselmo Bucci,Leonardo Dudreville,Achille Funi, Gian Emilio Malerba, Piero Marussig, Ubaldo Oppi, and Mario Sironi. Under Sarfatti's leadership, the group sought to renew Italian art by rejecting European avant-garde movements and embracing Italy's artistic traditions.
Other artists associated with the Novecento movement included sculptorsMarino Marini andArturo Martini, and paintersOttone Rosai,Massimo Campigli,Carlo Carrà, andFelice Casorati.
Spatialism was a movement founded by the Italian artistLucio Fontana, with its principles expressed in manifestos between 1947 and 1954.
Combining elements of concrete art, Dada, and Tachism, the movement's adherents rejected traditional easel painting and embraced new technological developments, seeking to incorporate time and movement into their works. Fontana's slashed and pierced paintings exemplify his ideas.
Arte Povera is an artistic movement that originated in Italy in the 1960s, combining elements of conceptual, minimalist, and performance art. The movement made use of everyday, often discarded materials, such as earth and newspaper, with the aim of subverting the commercialization of art. The phrase "Arte Povera" is Italian and literally translates to "impoverished art."
The termTransavantgarde was coined by the Italian criticAchille Bonito Oliva. He defined Transavantgarde art as traditional in format (mainly painting or sculpture), apolitical, and, above all, eclectic.
According to the 2017 amendments to the ItalianCodice dei beni culturali e del paesaggio,[20][21] a work of art can be legally defined as being of public and cultural interest if it was completed at least 70 years ago. The previous limit was 50 years. To facilitate the export and international trade of art as astore of value, private owners and their dealers were granted the ability to self-certify a commercial value below €13,500, enabling them to transport goods across the country’s borders and into the European Union without needing public administrative permission for such transactions.[22][23]
The bill was passed and came into force on 29 August 2017.[21] Public authorization is required for archaeological remains discovered underground or underwater.[20]
