The Italian Social Republic was the second and last incarnation of theItalian Fascist state, led by the Italian dictatorBenito Mussolini and his reformedanti-monarchistRepublican Fascist Party. The newly founded state declaredRome its capital but thede facto capital wasSalò (hence the colloquial name of the state), a small town onLake Garda, nearBrescia, where Mussolini and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were headquartered. The Italian Social Republic nominally exercisedsovereignty inNorthern andCentral Italy, but was largely dependent on German troops to maintain control.
Around 25 April 1945, 19 months after its founding, the RSIall but collapsed. In Italy, the day is known asLiberation Day (festa della liberazione). On that day, a general partisan uprising, alongside the efforts of Allied forces during theirfinal offensive in Italy, managed to oust the Germans and the remaining RSI forces from Italy almost entirely.Mussolini was captured and killed by Italian partisans on 28 April as he and an entourage attempted to flee. The RSI Minister of Defense,Rodolfo Graziani, surrendered what was left of the Italian Social Republic on 1 May, one day after the German forces in Italy capitulated.
The next day,KingVictor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini from office, ordered him arrested, and appointedMarshalPietro Badoglio as new prime minister. By this time, the monarchy, a number ofFascist government members, and the general Italian population had grown tired of the futile war effort which had driven Italy into subordination to and subjugation byNazi Germany. The failed war effort left Mussolini humiliated at home and abroad as a "sawdustCaesar".[9] The new government began secret negotiations with the Allied powers and made preparations for the capitulation of Italy. These surrender talks implied a commitment from Badoglio to leave theAxis alliance.
While the Germans formally recognised the newstatus quo in Italian politics, they intervened by sending some of the best units of theWehrmacht to Italy. This was done both to resist new Allied advances and to face the predictably imminent defection of Italy. While Badoglio continued to swear loyalty to Germany and the Axis powers, Italian government emissaries prepared to sign anarmistice atCassibile in Allied-occupiedSicily, which was finalized on 3 September.
On 8 September, Badoglio announced Italy's armistice with the Allies (although termed an "armistice", its terms made it akin to anunconditional surrender). GermanFührerAdolf Hitler and his staff, long aware of the negotiations, acted immediately by ordering German troops to seize control of Northern and Central Italy. The Germans quicklyoccupied Italy, disarmed the Italian troops and took over all of the Italian Army's materials and equipment, meeting only limited resistance. The Germans also dissolved theItalian occupation zone in southeastern France and forced Italian troops stationed there to leave. The Italian armed forces were not given clear orders to resist the Germans after the armistice and so resistance to the German takeover was scattered and of little effect. King Victor Emmanuel made no effort to rally resistance to the Germans, instead fleeing with his retinue to the safety of the Allied lines. On 10 September 1943, after two days of battle between theWehrmacht and the remnants of theRoyal Italian Army, Rome fell to the Germans.
The new Italian government had moved Mussolini from place to place while he was in captivity in an attempt to foil any attempts at rescue. Despite this, the Germans eventually pinpointed Mussolini at theHotel Campo Imperatore atGran Sasso. On 12 September, Mussolini was freed by the Germans inOperation Eiche (directed bySS-ObersturmbannführerOtto Skorzeny) in the mountains ofAbruzzo.[10] After being freed, Mussolini was flown toBavaria. Gathering what support he still had among the Italian population, his liberation made it possible for a new German-dependent Fascist Italian state to be created.
Italian Social Republic propaganda poster saying: "Germany is truly your friend", byGino Boccasile (1944)
Three days following his rescue in the Gran Sasso raid, Mussolini was taken to Germany for a meeting with Hitler inRastenburg athis headquarters inEast Prussia. While Mussolini was in poor health and wanted to retire, Hitler wanted him to return to Italy and start a new Fascist state under the protection of the Wehrmacht. Mussolini balked; he was tired of the responsibilities of the war and unwilling to retake power. Hitler told him the alternative would be a German military administration that would treat Italy no differently from other occupied countries. Hitler also threatened to destroyMilan,Genoa andTurin unless Mussolini agreed to set up a revived Fascist government. Reluctantly, Mussolini agreed to Hitler's demands.[11]
Mussolini returned to Italy and settled in Milan, from where on 15 September he announced the creation of theRepublican Fascist Party and, three days later, the resumption of the war alongside Germany and Japan. The Duce immediately announced the formation of a new republican cabinet, although they actually came from a list chosen and appointed by Hitler himself. The Italian Social Republic was proclaimed on 23 September, with Mussolini as both chief of state and prime minister.[4][7] The RSI claimed Rome as its capital, but thede facto capital became the small town ofSalò on Lake Garda, midway between Milan andVenice, where Mussolini resided along with the foreign office of the RSI. While Rome itself was still under Axis control at the time, given the city's proximity to Allied lines and the threat of civil unrest, neither the Germans nor Mussolini himself wanted him to return to Rome.[12]
On 18 September, Mussolini made his first public address to the Italian people since his rescue, in which he commended the loyalty of Hitler as an ally while condemning Victor Emmanuel for betraying Italian Fascism.[11] He declared: "It is not the regime that has betrayed the monarchy, it is the monarchy that has betrayed the regime". He also formally repudiated his previous support of the monarchy, saying: "When a monarchy fails in its duties, it loses every reason for being…The state we want to establish will be national and social in the highest sense of the word; that is, it will be Fascist, thus returning to our origins".[11]
From the start, the Italian Social Republic was little more than apuppet state dependent entirely upon Germany and arump state for the Fascists who were still loyal to Mussolini.[12][5] Mussolini himself knew this; even as he stated in public that he was in full control of the RSI, he was well aware that he was little more than theGauleiter ofLombardy.[7] The SS kept Mussolini under what amounted to house arrest; it monitored his communications and controlled his travel. Mussolini later said that he would have preferred being sent to aconcentration camp to the manner that the SS treated him. Real power rested with German GeneralPlenipotentiaryRudolf Rahn and SS-ObergruppenführerKarl Wolff, the commander of the German occupying forces in Italy.[13]
The RSI had no constitution or organized economy, and its financing was dependent entirely on funding from Berlin.[14] German forces themselves had little respect for Mussolini's failed fascism, and considered the regime merely as a tool for maintaining order, such as repressing theItalian partisans.[15] This work was also carried out by the infamousPietro Koch and the Banda Koch on Germany's behalf.[16]
The RSI took revenge against the 19 members who had voted against Mussolini on the Grand Council with theVerona trial (processo di Verona) which handed down a death sentence to all of the accused but one. Only six of the 19 were in RSI custody (Giovanni Marinelli,Carlo Pareschi,Luciano Gottardi,Tullio Cianetti,Emilio De Bono and Mussolini's own son-in-lawGaleazzo Ciano). With the exception of Tullio Cianetti, who received alife sentence, they were all executed on 11 January 1944 in the fort of San Procolo inVerona.
The changing political and military situation re-opened questions regarding the status of Italian territories, particularly those with German-speaking majorities that were formerly under Austrian rule. Previously, Hitler had vigorously suppressed any campaigning for the return of lands such asSouth Tyrol in order to maintain good relations with his Italian ally. In the aftermath of Italy's abandonment of theAxis on 8 September 1943, Germany seized andde facto incorporated some Italian territories.[8] However, Hitler refused to officially annex South Tyrol in spite of urging by local German officials and instead supported having the RSI hold official sovereignty over these territories and forbade all measures that would give the impression of official annexation of South Tyrol.[17] However, in practice the territory of South Tyrol within the boundaries defined by Germany asOperationszone Alpenvorland that includedTrento,Bolzano andBelluno werede facto incorporated into Germany'sReichsgau Tirol-Vorarlberg and administered by itsGauleiterFranz Hofer.[8][18] The region identified by Germany asOperationszone Adriatisches Küstenland that includedUdine,Gorizia,Trieste,Pola andFiume werede facto incorporated intoReichsgau Kärnten and administered by itsGauleiterFriedrich Rainer.[19]
On 10 September 1943, theIndependent State of Croatia (NDH) declared that theTreaties of Rome of 18 May 1941 with the Kingdom of Italy werenull and void and annexed theportion of Dalmatia that had been given to Italy from the partition of Axis-occupiedYugoslavia as part of those treaties.[20] The NDH attempted to annexZara, which had been a recognized territory of Italy since 1919, but Germany prevented the NDH from doing this.[20] Because of these actions, the RSI held the NDH in contempt and refused to have diplomatic relations with the NDH or to recognize its territorial claims.[20]
After the Italian capitulation, theItalian Islands of the Aegean were occupied by the Germans (seeDodecanese campaign). During the German occupation, the islands remained under the nominal sovereignty of the RSI but werede facto subject to the German military command.[21]
Finland andVichy France, despite being in the Axis orbit, did not recognise the RSI. Even otherwise sympathetic States such asSpain orPortugal refused to establish formal diplomatic relations with the RSI. TheHoly See did not recognise the RSI.[22][23]
Territory of the Italian Social Republic throughout its lifespan
During the existence of the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini, whose former government had banned trade unions and strikes, began to make increasinglypopulist appeals to the working class. He claimed to regret many of the decisions made earlier in supporting the interests of big business and promised a new beginning if the Italian people would be willing to grant him a second chance. Mussolini claimed that he had never totally abandoned his left-wing influences, insisting that he had attempted to nationalize property in 1939–1940 but had been forced to delay such action for tactical reasons related to the war.[24] With the removal of the monarchy, Mussolini claimed the full ideology of Fascism could be pursued; and to gain popular support he reversed over twenty years of Fascist policy of backing private property and relative economic independence by ordering the nationalization of all companies with over 100 employees.[25] Mussolini even reached out to ex-communistNicola Bombacci to help him in spreading the image that Fascism was a progressive movement.[25] The economic policy of the RSI was given the name "Socialization [it]", and Mussolini had even considered the idea of calling his new republic the "Italian 'Socialist' Republic".[26] In practice, little resulted from the declared socialisation of the economy. Unions did not exert real control of their management and took no part in state planning (as they had the power to do on paper after the socialisation). The Italian industrial sector was excluded from the new reforms by the Germans, and Italian industrialists were opposed to the changes in any case. The Italian labour force (large parts of which had remained leftist despite fascist rule) regarded socialization as a sham and responded with a massive strike on 1 March 1944.[12]. In fact, the 12 February decree did not provide for socialization of capital, but of management, and unions were brought into company management[27]
In Greece, while the government of the Kingdom of Italy surrendered and many Italian soldiers in the Aegean were tired of the war and had become opposed to Mussolini, Italian Fascist loyalists remained allied to Germany in the Greek campaign; German forces in Greece convinced 10,000 Italians in the Aegean to continue to support their war effort.[28]
In 1944, Mussolini urged Hitler to focus on destroying Britain rather than the Soviet Union, as Mussolini claimed that it was Britain that had turned the conflict into a world war and that the British Empire must be destroyed in order for peace to come to Europe.[29] Mussolini wanted to conduct a small offensive along theGothic Line against the Allies with his new RSI Divisions; in December 1944, the Alpine Division "Monte Rosa" with some German battalions fought theBattle of Garfagnana with some success. As the situation became desperate, with Allied forces in control of most of Italy, and from February 1945 resumedpushing the Axis forces north of the Gothic Line,[30] Mussolini declared that "he would fight to the last Italian" and spoke of turning Milan into the "Stalingrad of Italy", where Fascism would make its last glorious fight.[31] Despite such strong rhetoric, Mussolini considered evacuating Fascists into Switzerland, although this was opposed by Germany, which instead proposed that Mussolini and key Fascist officials be taken into exile in Germany.[31] Further disintegration of support for his government occurred as fascist and German military officials secretly tried to negotiate atruce with Allied forces, without consulting either Mussolini or Hitler.[32]
On 16 October 1943, the Rastenburg Protocol was signed with Nazi Germany and the RSI was allowed to raise division-sized military formations. This protocol allowed MarshalRodolfo Graziani to raise four RSI divisions totaling 52,000 men. In July 1944, the first of these divisions completed training and was sent to the front.
Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI as most of the Italian Army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many military-aged Italians had been conscripted into forced labour in Germany and few wanted to participate in the war. The RSI became so desperate for soldiers that it granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and imposed a sentence of death on anyone who opposed being conscripted.[34] Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the notoriousDecima Flottiglia MAS of PrinceJunio Valerio Borghese. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could.[34]
On 26 December 1944, several sizeable RSI military units, including elements of the 4th Italian "Monterosa Division" Alpine Division and the 3rd Italian "San Marco" Marine Division, participated inOperation Winter Storm. This was a combined German and Italian offensive against theUnited States Army's92nd Infantry Division. The battle was fought in the Apennines. While limited in scale, this was a successful offensive and the RSI units did their part.
The RSI military was under the command of GeneralAlfredo Guzzoni while Field MarshalRodolfo Graziani, the former governor-general ofItalian Libya, was the RSI's Minister of Defense and commander-in-chief of the combined German-ItalianArmy Group Liguria. Mussolini, asDuce and head of state of RSI assumed supreme command over all military forces of the RSI.
In February 1945, the 92nd Infantry Division again came up against RSI units. This time it wasBersaglieri of the 1st Italian "Italia" Infantry Division. The Italians successfully halted the United States division's advance.
However, the situation continued to deteriorate for the Axis forces on Gothic Line.[36] By mid-April 1945, thefinal Allied offensive in Italy had led German defences to collapse. At the end of that month, the last remaining troops of RSI were bottled up along with twoWehrmacht divisions atCollecchio by1st Brazilian Division, being forced to surrender after some days of fighting.[37][38][39]
On 29 April, Graziani surrendered and was present at Caserta when a representative of German GeneralHeinrich von Vietinghoff-Scheel signed the unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis forces in Italy, but since the Allies had never recognised the RSI Graziani's signature was not required at Caserta.[40] The surrender was to take effect on 2 May; Graziani ordered all RSI forces under his command to lay down their arms on 1 May.
TheNational Republican Air Force (Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana or ANR) was theair force of Italian Social Republic and also the air unit of National Republican Army. It was organized into threefightergroups, onetorpedo bomber group, onebomber group, and othertransport and minor units. The ANR worked closely with the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) in Northern Italy.
In 1944, after the withdrawal of all German fighter units for home air defense over Germany, ANR fighter groups were left alone and heavily outnumbered to face the massive Allied air offensive over Northern Italy. During 1944 and 1945, the ANR shot down 262 Allied aircraft for the loss in action of 158 of its own.[41][42][43]
Little of the ItalianRegia Marina (Royal Navy) joined the RSI. This was because the bulk of theRegia Marina was ordered to steam toMalta at the time of the September 1943 armistice, where it was out of the reach of the Germans and the RSI. The RSI'sNational Republican Navy (Marina Nazionale Repubblicana or MNR) only reached a twentieth the size of theItalian Co-belligerent Navy that fought on the Allied side after the September 1943 armistice.[44] The National Republican Navy consisted of ninemotor torpedo boats (two large and seven small) and dozens ofMTSM small motor torpedo boats andMTM explosivemotorboats.[45] The National Republican Navy also operated 15CB-classmidget submarines (ten in theAdriatic Sea and five in theBlack Sea) and one larger submarine,CM1.[46]
The fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and the disbandment of the MVSN or "Blackshirts" saw the establishment of theNational Republican Guard (Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana or GNR) and theRepublican Police Corps (Corpo di Polizia Repubblicana) and the emergence of theBlack Brigades (brigate nere). The GNR consisted of formerOVRA, carabinieri, soldiers,Italian Africa Police, and others still loyal to the Fascist cause, while the Republican Police Corps was the successor agency of the public security complex formed by the Directorate of Public Security and the Public Security Agents Corps. The Black Brigade was formed by the new fascist party members both young and old. Both units fought alongsideNaziSchutzstaffel (SS) counterparts against theItalian resistance movement in an extensive anti-partisan war. The Black Brigades committed many atrocities in their fight against the Italian resistance movement and political enemies. On 15 August 1944, the GNR became part of the National Republican Army.
TheIspettorato Militare del Lavoro (ILM),[47] informally called theOrganizzazione Paladino[48] orAzione Graziani,[49] was an organization of the Italian Social Republic duringWorld War II composed of volunteer labourers "to collaborate with the German authorities in repairing roads and railways, and in general carry out other work of either a civil or military nature."[49] The organization was proposed by GeneralFrancesco Paladino. WithGerman agreement, MarshalRodolfo Graziani appointed Paladino its first director on 6 October 1943. Its headquarters was initially in Rome, and it was under the authority of the Ministry of Defence.[49]
Women volunteers served in uniform as noncombatants in paramilitary units and police formations (Servizio Ausiliario Femminile). The commander was thebrigadier generalPiera Gatteschi Fondelli.[50][51]
The Government of the Italian Social Republic held office from 23 September 1943 until 25 April 1945, a total of1 year, 274 days.[52] Its head wasBenito Mussolini.[53]
The Government wrote a constitution for the Italian Social Republic,[54] but it was never discussed or approved. On 13 October 1943, the Government announced that a Constituent Assembly would be called to write a new constitution, but that was cancelled by Mussolini on 14 November 1943 and delayed until after the end of the war. The disintegration of the Italian Social Republic at the end of the war meant that no new constitution was written.
The RSI was led by theRepublican Fascist Party, established on 18 September 1943 out of the disbandedNational Fascist Party.[55] The party's official newspaper wasIl Lavoro Fascista, formerly the publication of Fascist trade unions; Mussolini was largely indifferent toward the new paper and generally wrote on theCorriere della Sera instead. TheDuce explicitly refused to revive his former newspaperIl Popolo d'Italia, not willing to let it become a mouthpiece of the German occupation.[56]
On 14 February 1945, Mussolini authorized the formation of a second political party called theNational Republican Socialist Rally [it] (RNRS, later rebranded as the Italian Socialist Republican Party) under the leadership of Edmondo Cione. The party supported aleftist view of fascism [it] strongly focused on the socialization of the economy, and included several former socialists, such as Pulvio Zocchi, Carlo Silvestri, and Walter Mocchi; it also published a newspaper calledL'Italia del Popolo. It was politically insignificant and its membership is unknown.[57] Mussolini himself privately told German ambassadorRudolf Rahn that he only authorised the formation of the RNRS in an attempt to sway some working-class voters away from theNational Liberation Committee and that it was never meant to create any real political pluralism.[58]
In terms of geography, the core of the Italian Social Republic's government was actually not in Salò but inGargnano, further north on the shore of Lake Garda, where Mussolini had both his residence and his office and where the Council of Ministers held most of its meetings. The name Salò was only associated with the RSI regime after liberation, possibly because the small town was the hub of regime-related journalistic activity and thus identified abroad as the source of news about it. Only two of the RSI's ministries were in Salò, the others being scattered far from Lake Garda.[59]
Villa Feltrinelli inGargnano, Mussolini's residence during the RSI period[60]
Palazzo Feltrinelli (also known as Villa Orsoline) in Gargnano, Mussolini's office and secretariat[60]
Villa Bettoni in Gargnano, seat of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers and venue of 15 of 17 of the Council's meetings[61]
Hotel Laurin (formerly Villa Simonini) in Salò, seat of the RSI foreign affairs ministry[62]
While the RSI supported Nazi Germany, it allowed the Italian Fascist movement to build a completelytotalitarian state. During the preceding twenty years of the Fascist association with theSavoy monarchy of the Kingdom of Italy, some Fascist actions had been restricted by the monarchy. However, the formation of the RSI enabled Mussolini to become the official head of an Italian state and allowed the Fascists to return to their earlierrepublican stances. In one way or another, most of the prominent leaders of the post-war Italian far-right (both parliamentary and extraparliamentary) were associated with the experience of the RSI. Among them wereFilippo Anfuso,Pino Romualdi,Rodolfo Graziani,Junio Valerio Borghese,Licio Gelli, andGiorgio Almirante, many of whom would be involved in the founding of theNeo-fascistItalian Social Movement. Most of the 8,000Italian Jews who died in theHolocaust in Italy were killed during the 20 months of the Salò regime.[63]
A number of postage stamps were issued by the Republic of Salò. Initially, existing Italian issues wereoverprinted with afasces, or the initials "G.N.R." for theGuardia Nazionale Repubblicana (Republican National Guard). Later the government designed and printed three series, all of which are very common.[64]
Banknotes in 50, 100, 500, and 1000lire denomination were printed by the Republic. As issuer, the country was not mentioned on them, but rather only theBank of Italy.[65]
Bernardo Bertolucci's 1976Novecento set his story inEmilia, being at the time a province of the Italian Social Republic, even though this is never mentioned in the movie.Wild Blood tells the true story of the Fascist film starsLuisa Ferida andOsvaldo Valenti and their support for the Republic.
^The War Flag is most commonly associated with the RSI.
^In ceremonies, eitherIl Canto degli Italiani orGiovinezza was sung (in the latter case the legionaries preferred the text of the "Hymn of the Arditi" rather than that of the "Triumphal Hymn of the National Fascist Party.")[1]
^Marcia del Volontario byEnnio Porrino was endorsed by Undersecretary to the Presidency of the Council of Ministers,Francesco Maria Barracu, but never became official.[2]
^Both OZAV and OZAK were still formally part of the RSI. But the two regions were put under direct German military administration.
^Renzo De Felice,Breve storia del fascismo, Milano, Mondadori (Collana oscar storia), 2002, pp. 120–121.
^abcdPauley, Bruce F. (2003),Hitler, Stalin and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy (2nd ed.), Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, p. 228,ISBN0-88295-993-X
^abEric Morris,Circles of Hell: The War in Italy 1943-1945,ISBN0091744741, 1993, p. 140
^Neville, Peter (2014).Mussolini (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 199.ISBN9781317613046.
^abcSusan Zuccotti. TheItalians and the Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue, and Survival. University of Nebraska Press paperback edition. University of Nebraska Press, 1996. P. 148.
^Wyke, Maria (2012).Caesar in the USA. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 128.ISBN9780520954274.
^Di Michele, Vincenzo (2015).The Last Secret of Mussolini. Il Cerchio.ISBN978-8884744227.
^abcdDe Grand, Alexander J.,Italian fascism: its origins & development, 3d edition (illustrated), Publisher: University of Nebraska Press, Year: 2000,ISBN0-8032-6622-7, p. 131
^Rolf Steininger.South Tyrol: A Minority Conflict of the Twentieth Century. Pp. 69.
^Giuseppe Motta.The Italian Military Governorship in South Tyrol and the Rise of Fascism. English translation edition. Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2012. P. 104.
^Arrigo Petacco.Tragedy Revealed: The Story of Italians from Istria, Dalmatia, and Venezia Giulia, 1943–1956. Toronto, Ontario, Canada:University of Toronto Press, 2005. P. 50.
^abcJozo Tomašević.War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration: 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration.Stanford University Press, 2001. P. 300.
^Nicola Cospito; Hans Werner Neulen (1992).Salò-Berlino: l'alleanza difficile. La Repubblica Sociale Italiana nei documenti segreti del Terzo Reich. Mursia. p. 128.ISBN88-425-1285-0.
^Page 100, "The Armed Forces of World War II", Andrew Mollo,ISBN0-517-54478-4
^Spencer C. Tucker,World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia, p. 389
^Jack Greene, Alessandro Massignani,The Black Prince and the Sea Devils: The Story of Valerio Borghese and the elite units of the Decima MAS, p. 42
^Giorgio Fanti; Lucrezia Fanti (2021),Storie dimenticate: Antifascismo, guerra e lotta partigiana nella provincia di Viterbo, vol. 2, Sette Città,p. 51f.
^Petra Terhoeven, "Frauen im Widerstand: Das Beispiel der Italienischen Resistenza",Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 2004. 52#7 pp 608–625.
^M. Fraddosio, "Woman and War: Aspects Of Womens Militancy During Fascism, From Civil Mobilization to the Origins Of The Servizio-Ausiliario-Femminile in the Italian Social-Republic."Storia Contemporanea 20#6 (1989): 1105–1181.
Morgan, Philip.The Fall of Mussolini: Italy, the Italians, and the Second World War (2007)
Moseley, Ray.Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce (2004)
Roberto Chiarini[in Italian] (2004).Mussolini ultimo atto. I luoghi della Repubblica di Salò (in Italian and German). Roccafranca: La compagnia della stampa.ISBN88-8486-105-5.OCLC804881568.
![Villa Feltrinelli in Gargnano, Mussolini's residence during the RSI period[60]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVilla_Feltrinelli_BMK.jpg)
![Palazzo Feltrinelli (also known as Villa Orsoline) in Gargnano, Mussolini's office and secretariat[60]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGargnano_Palazzo_Feltrinelli.jpg)
![Villa Bettoni in Gargnano, seat of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers and venue of 15 of 17 of the Council's meetings[61]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGardesana07.jpg)
![Hotel Laurin (formerly Villa Simonini) in Salò, seat of the RSI foreign affairs ministry[62]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSalo_Hotel_Laurin.jpg)
![Villa Fiordalisio in Gardone Riviera, private residence of Clara Petacci[60]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aVilla_Fiordaliso_-_Gardone_Riviera%2c_Italy.jpg)
