Israeli cuisine primarily comprises dishes brought from theJewish diaspora, and has more recently been defined by the development of a notablefusion cuisine characterized by the mixing ofJewish cuisine andArab cuisine.[1] It also blends together the culinary traditions of the various diaspora groups, namely those ofMiddle Eastern Jews with roots inSouthwest Asia and North Africa,Sephardi Jews fromIberia, andAshkenazi Jews fromCentral and Eastern Europe.[1][2]
The country's cuisine also incorporates food and drinks traditionally included in otherMiddle Eastern cuisines (e.g.,Iranian cuisine fromPersian Jews andTurkish cuisine fromTurkish Jews) as well as inMediterranean cuisines, such that spices likeza'atar and foods such asfalafel,hummus,msabbaha,shakshouka, andcouscous are now widely popular in Israel.[3][4] However, the identification of Arab dishes as Israeli has led to accusations ofcultural appropriation against Israel byPalestinians and otherArabs.[5][6]
Other influences on the cuisine are the availability of foods common to theMediterranean, especially certain kinds of fruits and vegetables, dairy products, and fish; the tradition of observingkashrut; and food customs and traditions (minhag) specific toShabbat and otherJewish holidays. Examples of these foods includechallah,jachnun,malawach,gefilte fish,hamin,me'orav yerushalmi, andsufganiyot.
New dishes based on agricultural products such as oranges, avocados, dairy products, and fish, and others based on world trends have been introduced over the years, and chefs trained abroad have brought in elements of other international cuisines.[7]
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Israel's culinary traditions comprise foods and cooking methods that span 3,000 years of history. Over that time, these traditions have been shaped by influences from Asia, Africa and Europe, and religious and ethnic influences have resulted in a culinary melting pot. Biblical and archaeological records provide insight into the culinary life of the region as far back as 1000 BCE.[8]
Ancient Israelite cuisine was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as theseven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes.[9] The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east–west trade routes.[8]
During theSecond Temple period (516 BCE – 70 CE),Hellenistic andRoman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of thepriests and aristocracy ofJerusalem. Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entrées and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits.[8]
After thedestruction of the Second Temple and theexile of the majority of Jews from the Land of Israel, Jewish cuisine continued to develop in the many countries where Jewish communities have existed sinceLate Antiquity, influenced by the economics, agriculture, and culinary traditions of those countries.[citation needed]
TheOld Yishuv was the Jewish community that lived inOttoman Syria prior to theZionistAliyah from thediaspora that began in 1881. The cooking style of the community wasSephardi cuisine, which developed among theJews of Spain before theirexpulsion in 1492, and in the areas to which they migrated thereafter, particularly theBalkans andOttoman Empire. Sephardim and Ashkenazim also established communities in the Old Yishuv. Particularly in Jerusalem, they continued to develop their culinary style, influenced byOttoman cuisine, creating a style that became known as Jerusalem Sephardi cuisine.[10] This cuisine included pies likesambousak,pastels andburekas, vegetablegratins and stuffed vegetables, and rice andbulgurpilafs, which are now considered to be Jerusalem classics.[7]
Groups ofHasidic Jews fromEastern Europe also began establishing communities in the late 18th century, and brought with them their traditionalAshkenazi cuisine, developing, however, distinct local variations, notably a peppery, caramelized noodle pudding known askugel yerushalmi.[11]
Beginning with theFirst Aliyah in 1881, Jews began immigrating to the area fromYemen and Eastern Europe in larger numbers, particularly from Poland and Russia. TheseZionist pioneers were motivated both ideologically and by the Mediterranean climate to reject the Ashkenazi cooking styles they grew up with, and adapt by using local produce, especially vegetables such aszucchini,peppers,eggplant,artichoke andchickpeas.[7] The first Hebrew cookbook,How to Cook in Palestine, written byErna Meyer and published in the early 1930s by the Palestine Federation of theWomen's International Zionist Organization, exhorted cooks to use Mediterranean herbs and Middle-Eastern spices and local vegetables in their cooking.[10] The bread, olives, cheese and raw vegetables they adopted became the basis for thekibbutz breakfast, which in more abundant forms is served in Israeli hotels, and in various forms in most Israeli homes today.[7][10]
The State of Israel faced enormous military and economic challenges in its early years, and the period from 1948 to 1958 was a time of food rationing andausterity, known astzena. In this decade, over one million Jewish immigrants, mainly from Arab countries, but also including EuropeanHolocaust survivors, inundated the new state. They arrived when only basic foods were available and ethnic dishes had to be modified with a range of mock or simulated foods, such as chopped "liver" from eggplant, and turkey as a substitute for vealschnitzel for Ashkenazim,kubbeh made from frozen fish instead ofground meat forIraqi Jews, and turkey in place of the lambkebabs of theMizrahi Jews. These adaptations remain a legacy of that time.[7][10]
Substitutes, such as the wheat-based rice substitute,ptitim, were introduced, and versatile vegetables such as eggplant were used as alternatives to meat. Additional flavor and nutrition were provided from inexpensive canned tomato paste and puree,hummus,tahina, and mayonnaise in tubes. Meat was scarce, and it was not until the late 1950s that herds of beef cattle were introduced into the agricultural economy.[12]
Khubeza, a local variety of themallow plant, became an important food source during the War of Independence. During thesiege of Jerusalem, when convoys of food could not reach the city, Jerusalemites went out to the fields to pickkhubeza leaves, which are high in iron and vitamins.[13] Instructions for cooking it broadcast by Jerusalem-based radio station Kol Hamagen, were picked up in Jordan, which convinced the Arabs that the Jews were dying of starvation and victory was at hand.[14] In the past decade, food writers in Israel have encouraged the population to preparekhubeza onIsrael Independence Day.[15] Local chefs have begun to servekhubeza and other wild plants gathered from the fields in upscale restaurants.[16] The dish from the independence war is calledktzitzot khubeza and is still eaten by Israelis today.[citation needed]
Immigrants to Israel have introduced elements of the cuisines of the cultures and countries from whence they came.[1] In the nearly 50 years before 1948, there were successive waves ofJewish immigration, which brought a whole range of foods and cooking styles. Immigrants arriving from central Europe brought foods such asschnitzel andstrudels, while Russian Jews broughtborscht and herring dishes, such asschmaltz herring andvorschmack (gehakte herring).[7]
Ashkenazi dishes includechicken soup,schnitzel,lox,chopped liver,gefilte fish,knishes,kishka andkugel. The first Israelipatisseries were opened byAshkenazi Jews, who popularized cakes and pastries from central and Eastern Europe, such as yeast cakes (babka), nut spirals (schnecken), chocolate rolls and layered pastries. After 1948, the greatest impact came from the large migration of Jews from Turkey, Iraq, Kurdistan and Yemen, andMizrahi Jews from North Africa, particularly Morocco. Typically, the staff of army kitchens, schools, hospitals, hotels and restaurant kitchens has consisted of Mizrahi,Kurdish andYemenite Jews, and this has had an influence on the cooking fashions and ingredients of the country.[7]
Mizrahi cuisine, the cuisine of Jews from North Africa, features grilled meats, sweet and savory puff pastries, rice dishes, stuffed vegetables, pita breads and salads, and shares many similarities withArab cuisine. Other North African dishes popular in Israel includecouscous,shakshouka,matbucha, carrot salad andchraime (slices of fish cooked in a spicy tomato sauce).
Sephardic dishes, withBalkan and Turkish influences incorporated in Israeli cuisine includeburekas,yogurt andtaramosalata. Yemenite Jewish foods includejachnun,malawach,skhug andkubane. Iraqi dishes popular in Israel includeamba, various types ofkubba, stuffed vegetables (mhasha),kebab,sambusac,sabich andpickled vegetables (hamutzim).
As Israeli agriculture developed and new kinds of fruits and vegetables appeared on the market, cooks and chefs began to experiment and devise new dishes with them.[12] They also began using "biblical" ingredients such as honey, figs, and pomegranates, and indigenous foods such asprickly pears (tzabar) andchickpeas. Since the late 1970s, there has been an increased interest in international cuisine, cooking with wine and herbs, andvegetarianism.[7]
A more sophisticated food culture in Israel began to develop when cookbooks, such asFrom the Kitchen with Love by Ruth Sirkis, published in 1974, introduced international cooking trends, and together with the opening of restaurants serving cuisines such as Chinese, Italian and French, encouraged more dining out.[10][17]
The 1980s were a formative decade: the increased optimism after the signing of thepeace treaty with Egypt in 1979, the economic recovery of the mid-1980s and the increasing travel abroad by average citizens were factors contributing to a greater interest in food and wine. In addition, high-quality, locally produced ingredients became increasingly available. For example, privately owned dairies began to produce handmade cheeses from goat, sheep and cow's milk, which quickly became very popular both among chefs and the general public. In 1983, theGolan Heights Winery was the first of many new Israeli winemakers to help transform tastes with their production of world-class, semi-dry and dry wines. New attention was paid to the making of handmade breads and the production of high quality olive oil. The successful development ofaquaculture ensured a steady supply of fresh fish, and the agricultural revolution in Israel led to an overwhelming choice and quality of fresh fruit, vegetables and herbs.[10]
Ethnic heritage cooking, bothSephardic andAshkenazi, has made a comeback with the growing acceptance of the heterogeneous society. Apart from home cooking, many ethnic foods are now available in street markets, supermarkets and restaurants, or are served atweddings andbar mitzvahs, and people increasingly eat foods from ethnic backgrounds other than their own. Overlap and combinations of foods from different ethnic groups is becoming standard as a multi-ethnic food culture develops.[7][10]
The 1990s saw an increasing interest in international cuisines.Sushi, in particular, has taken hold as a popular style for eating out and as an entrée for events. In restaurants,fusion cuisine, with the melding of classic cuisines such as French and Japanese with local ingredients has become widespread.[citation needed]
In the 2000s, the trend of "eating healthy" with an emphasis onorganic andwhole-grain foods has become prominent, and medical research has led many Israelis to re-embrace theMediterranean diet, with its touted health benefits.[18]
Geography has a large influence on Israeli cuisine, and foods common in theMediterranean region, such as olives, wheat, chickpeas, dairy products, fish, and vegetables such as tomatoes, eggplants, and zucchini are prominent in Israeli cuisine. Fresh fruits and vegetables are plentiful in Israel and are cooked and served in many ways.[19]
There are various climaticareas in Israel and areas it has settled that allow a variety of products to be grown. Citrus trees such as orange, lemon and grapefruit thrive on the coastal plain. Figs, pomegranates and olives also grow in the cooler hill areas.[8]
The subtropical climate near the Sea of Galilee and in the Jordan River Valley is suitable for mangoes, kiwis and bananas, while the temperate climate of the mountains of the Galilee and the Golan is suitable for grapes, apples and cherries.[20]
Israeli eating customs also conform to the wider Mediterranean region, with lunch, rather than dinner, being the focal meal of a regular workday.
"Kibbutz foods" have been adopted by many Israelis for their light evening meals as well as breakfasts, and may consist of various types of cheeses, both soft and hard, yogurt,labne and sour cream, vegetables and salads, olives,hard-boiled eggs or omelets, pickled andsmoked herring, a variety of breads, and fresh orange juice and coffee.[7]
In addition,Jewish holidays influence the cuisine, with the preparation of traditional foods at holiday times, such as various types ofchallah (braided bread) forShabbat and festivals, jelly doughnuts (sufganiyot) forHanukah, thehamantaschen pastry (oznei haman) for Purim,charoset, a type of fruit paste, for Passover, and dairy foods forShavuot.
The Shabbat dinner, eaten on Friday, and to a lesser extent the Shabbat lunch, is a significant meal in Israeli homes, together with holiday meals.[19]
Although many, if not most, Jews in Israel do not keepkosher, the tradition ofkashrut strongly influences the availability of certain foods and their preparation in homes, public institutions and many restaurants, including the separation of milk and meat and avoiding the use of non-kosher foods, especially pork and shellfish.
DuringPassover, bread and other leavened foods are prohibited toobservant Jews andmatza and leaven-free foods are substituted.[21]
Israel does not have a universally recognized national dish; in previous years this was considered to befalafel, deep-fried balls of seasoned, ground chickpeas.[22][23] Street vendors throughout Israel used to sellfalafel, it was a favorite "street food" for decades and is still popular as amezze dish or as a top-up forhummus-in-pita, though less nowadays as a sole filling in pita due to thefrying in deep oil and higher health awareness.[incomprehensible][12]
The Israeli breakfast has always been largely healthy, by today's standards, and one book called theIsraeli breakfast "the Jewish state's contribution to world cuisine".[24]
Vegetable salads are eaten with most meals, including the traditional Israeli breakfast, which will usually include eggs, bread, and dairy products such as yogurt orcottage cheese. For lunch and dinner, salad may be served as a side dish. A light meal of salad (salat),hummus andFrench fries (chips) served in apita is referred to ashummuschipsalat.[25]
Israeli salad is typically made with finely chopped tomatoes and cucumbers dressed in olive oil, lemon juice, salt and pepper. Variations include the addition of diced red or green bell peppers, grated carrot, finely shredded cabbage or lettuce, sliced radish, fennel, spring onions and chives, chopped parsley, or other herbs and spices such asmint,za'atar andsumac.[25]
Although popularized by thekibbutzim, versions of this mixed salad were brought to Israel from various places. For example,Jews from India prepare it with finely choppedginger and greenchili peppers, North African Jews may add preserved lemon peel andcayenne pepper, andBukharan Jews chop the vegetables extremely finely and use vinegar, without oil, in the dressing.[26]
Tabbouleh is a Levantine vegan dish (sometimes considered a salad) traditionally made of tomatoes, finely chopped parsley, mint, bulgur and onion, and seasoned with olive oil, lemon juice, and salt. Some Israeli variations of the salad use pomegranate seeds instead of tomatoes.
Sabich salad is a variation of the well known Israeli dishsabich, the ingredients of the salad areeggplant, boiled eggs/hard-boiled eggs,tahini,Israeli salad, potato, parsley andamba.
Kubba is a dish made of rice/semolina/burghul (cracked wheat), minced onions and finely ground lean beef, lamb or chicken. The best-known variety is a torpedo-shaped friedcroquette stuffed with minced beef, chicken or lamb. It was brought to Israel by Jews of Iraqi, Kurdish and Syrian origin.
Sambusak is a semi-circular pocket of dough filled with mashed chickpeas, fried onions and spices. There is another variety filled with meat, fried onions, parsley, spices and pine nuts, which is sometimes mixed with mashed chickpeas and breakfast version withfeta ortzfat cheese andza'atar. It can be fried or otherwise cooked.
Roasted vegetables includes bell peppers, chili peppers, tomatoes, onions, eggplants and also sometimes potatoes and zucchini. Usually served with grilled meat.
Khamutzim are pickled vegetables made by soaking in water and salt (and sometimes olive oil) in a pot and withdrawing them from air. Ingredients can include cucumber, cabbage, eggplant, carrot, turnip, radish, onion, caper, lemon, olives, cauliflower, tomatoes, chili pepper, bell pepper, garlic and beans.
A large variety ofeggplant salads and dips are made with roasted eggplants.[27]Baba ghanoush, calledsalat ḥatzilim in Israel, is made withtahina and other seasonings such as garlic, lemon juice, onions, herbs and spices. Food writer and historianGil Marks has stated that: "Israelis learned to make baba ghanouj from the Arabs".[28] The eggplant is sometimes grilled over an open flame so that the pulp has a smoky taste. A particularly Israeli variation of the salad is made withmayonnaise calledsalat ḥatzilim b'mayonnaise.[29]
Eggplant salads are also made with yogurt, or withfeta cheese, chopped onion and tomato, or in the style ofRomanian Jews, with roasted red pepper.[30]
Tahina is often used as a dressing forfalafel,[31] serves as a cooking sauce for meat and fish, and forms the basis of sweets such ashalva.[32]
Hummus is a cornerstone of Israeli cuisine, and consumption in Israel has been compared by food critic Elena Ferretti to "peanut butter in America, Nutella in Europe or Vegemite in Australia".[33]Hummus in pita is a common lunch for schoolchildren, and is a popular addition to many meals.
Supermarkets offer a variety of commercially preparedhummus, and some Israelis will go out of their way for freshhummus prepared at ahummusia, an establishment devoted exclusively to selling hummus.[34]
Salat avocado is an Israeli-styleavocado salad, with lemon juice and choppedscallions (spring onions), was introduced by farmers who planted avocado trees on the coastal plain in the 1920s. Avocados have since become a winter delicacy and are cut into salads as well as being spread on bread.[35]
Ameze of fresh and cooked vegetable salads, pickled cucumbers and other vegetables,hummus,ful,tahini andamba dips,labneh cheese with olive oil, andikra is served at festive meals and in restaurants.
Salads include Turkish salad (a piquant salad of finely chopped onions, tomatoes, herbs and spices),tabbouleh,carrot salad, marinated roasted red and green peppers, deep fried cauliflower florets,matbucha,torshi (pickled vegetables) and various eggplant salads.[36][37]
Modern Israeli interpretations of themeze blend traditional and modern, pairing ordinary appetizers with unique combinations such as fennel and pistachio salad, beetroot and pomegranate salad, and celery andkashkaval cheese salad.[38]
Stuffed vegetables, calledmemula’im, were originally designed to extend cheap ingredients into a meal. They are prepared by cooks in Israel from allethnic backgrounds and are made with many varying flavors, such as spicy or sweet-and-sour, with ingredients such asbell peppers, chili peppers, figs, onion, artichoke bottoms, Swiss chard, beet, dried fruits, tomato, vine leaves, potatoes, mallow, eggplants and zucchini squash, and stuffing such as meat and rice in Balkan style,bulgur in Middle-Eastern fashion, or withptitim, a type of Israeli pasta.[39]
TheOttoman Turks introducedstuffed vine leaves in the 16th century and vine leaves are commonly stuffed with a combination of meat and rice, although other fillings, such aslentils, have evolved among the various communities.[40]
Artichoke bottoms stuffed with meat are famous as one of the grand dishes of the Sephardi Jerusalem cuisine of theOld Yishuv.[41]Stuffed dates and dried fruits are served with rice and bulgur dishes. Stuffed half-zucchini has a Ladino name,medias.
A variety of soups are enjoyed, particularly in the winter.Chicken soup has been a mainstay ofJewish cuisine since medieval times and is popular in Israel.[42]
Classic chicken soup is prepared as a simple broth with a few vegetables, such as onion, carrot and celery, and herbs such as dill and parsley.
More elaborate versions are prepared bySephardim withorzo or rice, or the addition of lemon juice or herbs such as mint orcoriander, whileAshkenazim may add noodles.[43] An Israeli adaption of the traditional Ashkenazi soup pasta known asmandlen, calledshkedei marak ("soup almonds") in Israel, are commonly served with chicken soup.
Particularly on holidays, dumplings are served with the soup, such as thekneidlach (matzah balls) of the Ashkenazim or thegondi (chickpea dumplings) of Iranian Jews, orkubba, a family of dumplings brought to Israel by Middle Eastern Jews. Especially popular arekubba prepared frombulgur and stuffed with ground lamb and pine nuts, and the softsemolina or ricekubba cooked in soup,[43] whichJews of Kurdish orIraqi heritage habitually enjoy as a Friday lunchtime meal.[44]
Lentil soup is prepared in many ways, with additions such as cilantro or meat.[45] Other soups include theharira of the Moroccan Jews, a spicy soup of lamb (or chicken), chickpeas, lentils and rice, and a Yemenite bone-marrow soup known asftut, served on special occasions such as weddings, seasoned with the traditionalhawaij spice mix.[46][47]
White bean soup in tomato sauce is common in Jerusalem because Sephardic Jews settled in the city after being expelled from Andalusia.
Rice is prepared in numerous ways in Israel, from simple steamedwhite rice to festive casseroles. It is also cooked with spices and served with almonds and pine nuts.
"Green" rice, prepared with a variety of fresh chopped herbs, is favored byPersian Jews. Another rice dish is prepared with thin noodles that are first fried and then boiled with the rice.
Mujadara is a popular rice andlentil dish, adopted from Arab cuisine.Orez Shu'it is a dish invented inJerusalem by Sephardic Jews, made of white beans cooked in a tomato stew and served on plain boiled rice; it is eaten widely in the Jerusalem region.
Couscous was brought to Israel byJews from North Africa. It is still prepared in some restaurants or by traditional cooks by passingsemolina through a sieve several times and then cooking it over an aromatic broth in a special steamer pot called acouscoussière. Generally, "instant"couscous is used for home cooking.
Couscous is used in salads, main courses and even some desserts. As a main course, chicken or lamb, or vegetables cooked in a soup flavored withsaffron orturmeric are served on steamedcouscous.[48][49]
Ptitim is an Israelipasta which now comes in many shapes, including pearls, loops, stars and hearts, but was originally shaped like grains of rice. It originated in the early days of the State of Israel as a wheat-based substitute for rice, when rice, a staple of theMizrahi Jews, was scarce.
Israel's first prime minister,David Ben-Gurion, is reputed to have asked theOsem company to devise this substitute, and so it was nicknamed "Ben-Gurion rice".
Ptitim can be boiled like pasta, preparedpilaf-style by sautéing and then boiling in water or stock, or baked in a casserole. Like other pasta, it can be flavored in many ways with spices, herbs and sauces. Once considered primarily a food for children,ptitim is now prepared in restaurants both in Israel and internationally.[50]
Bulgur is a kind of dried cracked wheat, served sometimes instead of rice.
Fresh fish is readily available, caught off Israel's coastal areas of theMediterranean and theRed Sea, or in theSea of Galilee, or raised in ponds in the wake of advances infish farming in Israel.
Fresh fish is served whole, in the Mediterranean style, grilled, or fried, dressed only with freshly squeezed lemon juice.Trout (forel),gilthead seabream (denisse),St. Peter's fish (musht) and other fresh fish are prepared this way.[51]
Fish are also eaten baked, with or without vegetables, or fried whole or in slices, or grilled over coals, and served with different sauces.[52]
Fish are alsobraised, as in a dish calledhraime, in which fish such asgrouper (better known in Israel by its Arabic namelokus) orhalibut is prepared in a sauce with hot pepper and other spices forRosh Hashanah,Passover andShabbat by North-African Jews.
Everyday versions are prepared with cheaper kinds of fish and are served in market eateries, public kitchens and at home for weekday meals.[51][52]
Fish, traditionallycarp, but now other firmwhitefish too, are minced and shaped into loaves or balls and cooked in fishbroth, such as thegefilte fish of the Ashkenazi Jews, who also broughtpickled herring from Eastern Europe.
Herring is often served at thekiddush that follows synagogue services onShabbat, especially in Ashkenazi communities. In the Russian immigrant community it may be served as a light meal with boiled potatoes, sour cream,dark breads andschnapps orvodka.[52][53]
Fish kufta is usually fried with spices, herbs and onions (sometimes also pine nuts) and served withtahini or yogurt sauce. Boiled fish kufta is cooked in a tomato,tahini or yogurt sauce.
Tilapia baked withtahini sauce and topped with olive oil, coriander, mint, basil and pine nuts (and sometimes also with fried onions) is a specialty of Tiberias.
Chicken is the most widely eaten meat in Israel, followed byturkey.[54] Chicken is prepared in a multitude of ways, from simple oven-roasted chicken to elaborate casseroles with rich sauces such as date syrup, tomato sauce, etc.
Examples include chicken casserole withcouscous, inspired by Moroccan Jewish cooking, chicken with olives, a Mediterranean classic, and chickenalbondigas (meat balls) in tomato sauce, from JerusalemSephardi cuisine.[54]
Albondigas are prepared from ground meat.[55] Similar to them is the more popularkufta which is made of minced meat, herbs and spices and cooked with tomato sauce, date syrup, pomegranate syrup or tamarind syrup with vegetables or beans.
Grilled andbarbecued meat are common in Israeli cuisine. The country has many small eateries specializing in beef and lambkebab,shish taouk,merguez andshashlik. Outdoor barbecuing, known asmangal oral ha-esh (on the fire) is a beloved Israeli pastime.
In modern times,Israel Independence Day is frequently celebrated with a picnic or barbecue in parks and forests around the country.[56]
Skewered goose liver is a dish from southern Tel Aviv. It is grilled with salt and black pepper and sometimes with spices like cumin orBaharat spice mix.
Chicken or lamb baked in the oven is very common with potatoes, and sometimes fried onions as well.
Turkeyschnitzel is an Israeli adaptation of vealschnitzel, and is an example of the transformations common in Israeli cooking.[57]
Theschnitzel was brought to Israel by Jews from Central Europe, but before and during the early years of the State of Israel veal was unobtainable and chicken or turkey was an inexpensive and tasty substitute. Furthermore, aWiener schnitzel is cooked in both butter and oil, but in Israel only oil is used, because ofkashrut.
Today, most cooks buyschnitzel already breaded and serve it withhummus,tahina, and other salads for a quick main meal. Other immigrant groups have added variations from their own backgrounds—Yemenite Jews, for example, flavor it withhawaij.[12] In addition, vegetarian versions have become popular and the Israeli food company, Tiv′ol, was the first to produce a vegetarianschnitzel from a soya meat-substitute.
Various types ofsausage are part ofSephardi andMizrahi cuisine in Israel.Jews from Tunisia make a sausage, calledosban, with a filling of ground meat or liver, rice, chopped spinach, and a blend of herbs and spices.Jews from Syria make smaller sausages, calledgheh, with a different spice blend while Jews from Iraq make the sausages, calledmumbar, with chopped meat and liver, rice, and their traditional mix of spices.[58]
Moussaka is an oven-baked layer dish ground meat and eggplant casserole that, unlike its Levantine rivals, is served hot.
Meat stews (chicken, lamb and beef) are cooked with spices, pine nuts, herbs like parsley, mint and oregano, onion, tomato sauce ortahini or juices such as pomegranate molasses, pomegranate juice, pomegranate wine, grapewine, arak, date molasses and tamarind. Peas, chickpeas, white beans, cowpeas or green beans are sometimes also added.
Stuffed chicken in Israel is usually stuffed with rice, meat (lamb or beef), parsley, dried fruits like dates, apricots or raisins, spices like cinnamon, nutmeg or allspice; sometimes herbs like thyme and oregano (not the dried ones) are added on the top of the chicken to give it a flavor and then it is baked in the oven.
Many fresh, high quality dairy products are available, such ascottage cheese, white cheeses, yogurts includingleben andeshel, yellowcheeses, andsalt-brined cheeses typical of the Mediterranean region.[59]
Dairy farming has been a major sector ofIsraeli agriculture since the founding of the state, and the yield of local milk cows is amongst the highest in the world. Initially, themoshavim (farming cooperatives) andkibbutzim produced mainly soft white cheese as it was inexpensive and nutritious. It became an important staple in the years of austerity and gained a popularity that it enjoys until today.[59]
Soft white cheese,gvina levana, is often referred to by its fat content, such as 5% or 9%. It is eaten plain, or mixed with fruit or vegetables, spread on bread or crackers and used in a variety of pies and pastries.[59]
Labneh is a yogurt-based white cheese common throughout the Balkans and the Middle East. It is sold plain, withza'atar, or in olive oil. It is often eaten for breakfast with other cheeses and bread.[60] In the north of the country,labneh balls preserved in olive oil are more common than in the central and the southern parts.
Adding spices likeza'atar, dried oregano or sumac and herbs like thyme, mint or scallions is common when preserving thelabneh balls. It is especially common to eat them during breakfast because meat is usually not eaten in the morning.
Tzfat cheese, a white cheese in brine, similar tofeta, was first produced by the Meiridairy inSafed in 1837 and is still produced there by descendants of the original cheese makers. The Meiri dairy also became famous for its production of the Balkan-stylebrinza cheese, which became known as Bulgarian cheese due to its popularity in the early 1950s among Jewish immigrants from Bulgaria.
Other dairies now also produce many varieties of these cheeses.[59] Bulgarian yogurt, introduced to Israel byBulgarian Jewish survivors ofthe Holocaust, is used to make a traditionalyogurt and cucumber soup.[61]
In the early 1980s, small privately owned dairies began to produce handmade cheeses from goat and sheep's milk as well as cow's milk, resembling traditional cheeses like those made in rural France, Spain and Italy. Many are made withorganic milk. These are now also produced bykibbutzim and the nationalTnuva dairy.[59]
Shakshuka, aNorth-African dish of eggs poached in a spicy tomato sauce, is a national favorite, especially in the winter. It is traditionally served up in a cast-iron pan with bread to mop up the sauce.[62] Some variations of the dish are cooked with liberal use of ingredients such as eggplant, chili peppers, hot paprika, spinach, feta cheese or safed cheese.
Omelettes are seasoned with onions, herbs such as dill seeds (shamir), spinach, parsley, mint, coriander and mallow with spices such as turmeric, cumin, sumac, cinnamon and cloves and with cheese such assafed andfeta.
Haminados are eggs that are baked after being boiled, served alongside stew or meals; inhamin they are used in the morning for breakfast, also sometimes replacing the usual egg insabich. They are also eaten as a breakfast alongsidejachnun, grated tomatoes andskhug.
Israel is one of the world's leading fresh citrus producers and exporters,[63] and more than forty types of fruit are grown in Israel, including citrus fruits such asoranges,grapefruit,tangerines and thepomelit, a hybrid of a grapefruit and apomelo, developed in Israel.[64]Fruits grown in Israel include avocados,bananas,apples,cherries,plums,lychees,nectarines,grapes,dates,strawberries,prickly pear (tzabbar),persimmon,loquat (shesek) andpomegranates, and are eaten on a regular basis. Israelis consume an average of nearly 160 kg (350 lb) of fruit per person a year.[65]
Many unique varieties ofmango are native to the country, most having been developed during the second half of the 20th century. New and improved mango varieties are still introduced to markets every few years.
Arguably the most popular variety is the Maya type, which is small to medium in size, fragrant, colourful (featuring 3-4 colours) and usually fiberless. The Israeli mango season begins in May, and the last of the fruit ripen as October draws near. Different varieties are present on markets at different months, with the Maya type seen between July and September. Mangos are frequently used in fusion dishes and for makingsorbet.
A lot of Israelis keep fruit trees in their yards, citrus (especially orange and lemon) being the most common. Mangos are also now popular as household trees.Mulberry trees are frequently seen in public gardens, and their fruit is popularly served alongside various desserts and as a juice.
Fruit is served as a snack or dessert alongside other items or by themselves. Fresh-squeezed fruit juices are prepared at street kiosks, and sold bottled in supermarkets.[65] Various fruits are added to chicken or meat dishes and fresh fruit salad andcompote are often served at the end of the meal.[66]
There is a strong tradition of homebaking in Israel arising from the years when there were very few bakeries to meet demand. Many professional bakers came to Israel from Central Europe and founded localpastry shops and bakeries, often calledkonditoria, thus shaping local tastes and preferences.
There is now a local style with a wide selection of cakes and pastries that includes influences from other cuisines and combines traditional European ingredients with Mediterranean and Middle-Eastern ingredients, such ashalva,phyllo dough, dates, androse water.[67]
Examples include citrus-flavoredsemolina cakes, moistened with syrup and calledbasbousa,tishpishti orrevani inSephardic bakeries. TheAshkenazibabka has been adapted to includehalva or chocolate spread, in addition to the old-fashioned cinnamon. There are also many varieties ofapple cake. Cookies made with crushed dates (ma'amoul) are served with coffee or tea, as throughout the Middle East.[67]
Jerusalemkugel (kugel yerushalmi) is an Israeli version of the traditional noodle pudding,kugel, made with caramelized sugar and spiced with black pepper.[68] It was originally a specialty of the Ashkenazi Jews of theOld Yishuv.[11] It is typically baked in a very low oven overnight and eaten after synagogue services onShabbat morning.[69]
Bourekas are savory pastries brought to Israel by Jews fromTurkey, the Balkans andSalonika. They are made of a flaky dough in a variety of shapes, frequently topped with sesame seeds, and are filled with meat, chickpeas, cheese, spinach, potatoes or mushrooms.Bourekas are sold at kiosks, supermarkets and cafes, and are served at functions and celebrations, as well as being prepared by home cooks.[70] They are often served as a light meal with hardboiled eggs andchopped vegetable salad.[71]
Ashkenazi Jews from Vienna and Budapest brought sophisticated pastry making traditions to Israel.Sacher torte andLinzer torte are sold at professional bakeries, butcheesecake andstrudel are also baked at home.[72]
Jelly donuts (sufganiyot), traditionally filled withred jelly (jam), but alsocustard ordulce de leche, are eaten asHanukkah treats.[73]
Tahini cookies are an Israeli origin cookies made oftahini, flour, butter and sugar and usually topped with pine nuts.
Rugelach is very popular in Israel, commonly found in most cafes and bakeries. It is also a popular treat among American Jews.
In the Jewish communities of theOld Yishuv,bread was baked at home. Small commercial bakeries were set up in the mid-19th century. One of the earliest,Berman's Bakery, was established in 1875, and evolved from acottage industry making home-baked bread and cakes forChristian pilgrims.[74]
Expert bakers who arrived among the immigrants from Eastern and Central Europe in the 1920s–30s introduced handmadesourdough breads.
From the 1950s, mass-produced bread replaced these loaves and standard, government subsidized loaves known asleḥem aḥid became mostly available until the 1980s, when specialized bakeries again began producing rich sourdough breads in the European tradition, and breads in a Mediterranean style with accents such as olives, cheese, herbs orsun-dried tomatoes. A large variety of breads is now available from bakeries and cafes.[74]
Challah bread is widely purchased or prepared forShabbat.Challah is typically an egg-enriched bread, often braided in the Ashkenazi tradition, or round forRosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year.[75]
Shabbat and festival breads of the Yemenite Jews have become popular in Israel and can be bought frozen in supermarkets.
Jachnun is very thinly rolled dough, brushed with oil or fat and baked overnight at a very low heat, traditionally served with a crushed or grated tomato dip, hard-boiled eggs andskhug.Malawach is a thin circle of dough toasted in a frying pan.Kubaneh is a yeast dough baked overnight and traditionally served onShabbat morning.Lahoh is a spongy, pancake-like bread made of fermented flour and water, and fried in a pan.Jews from Ethiopia make a similar bread calledinjera frommillet flour.[76]
Pita bread is a double-layeredflat or pocket bread traditional in many Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines. It is baked plain, or with a topping ofsesame ornigella seeds orza'atar.
Pita is used in multiple ways, such as stuffed withfalafel, salads or various meats as a snack or fast food meal; packed withschnitzel, salad and French fries for lunch; filled withchocolate spread as a snack for schoolchildren; or broken into pieces for scooping uphummus, eggplant and other dips.
Alafa is larger, soft flatbread that is rolled up with afalafel orshawarma filling.[77] Various ethnic groups continue to bake traditional flat breads.Jews from the former Soviet republic of Georgia make the flatbread,lavash.[74]
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Baklava is a nut-filledphyllo pastry sweetened with syrup served at celebrations in Jewish communities who originated in the Middle East.[78] It is also often served in restaurants as dessert, along with small cups ofTurkish coffee.
Kadaif is a pastry made from long thin noodle threads filled with walnuts or pistachios and sweetened with syrup; it is served alongsidebaklava.
Halva is a sweet, made fromtehina and sugar, and is popular in Israel. It is used to make original desserts likehalvaparfait.[79]
Ma'amoul are small shortbread pastries filled with dates, pistachios or walnuts (or occasionally almonds, figs, or other fillings).
Ozne Haman is a sweet yeast dough filled with crushed nuts, raisins, dried apricots, dates,halva or strawberry jam then oven baked, a specialty ofPurim. The triangular shape may have been influenced by old illustrations ofHaman, in which he wore a three-cornered hat.
Sunflower seeds, calledgarinim (literally, seeds), are eaten everywhere, on outings, at stadiums and at home, usually purchased unshelled and are cracked open with the teeth. They can be bought freshly roasted from shops and market stalls that specialize in nuts and seeds as well as packaged in supermarkets, along with the also well-likedpumpkin and watermelon seeds,pistachios, and sugar-coatedpeanuts.[80]
Bamba is a soft, peanut-flavored snack food that is a favorite of children, andBissli is a crunchy snack made of deep-fried dry pasta, sold in various flavors, including BBQ, pizza,falafel and onion.
Malabi is a creamy pudding originating from Turkey prepared with milk oralmond milk (for akosher version) and cornstarch.
It is sold as a street food from carts or stalls, indisposable cups with thick sweet syrup and various crunchy toppings such as chopped pistachios or coconut. Its popularity has resulted in supermarkets selling it in plastic packages and restaurants serving richer and more sophisticated versions using various toppings and garnishes such as berries and fruit.[81][82]Sahlab is a similar dessert made from the powdered tubers of orchids and milk.[81]
Watermelon withfeta cheese salad is a popular dessert, sometimes mint is added to the salad.
Krembo is achocolate-coated marshmallow treat sold only in the winter, and is a very popular alternative to ice cream. It comes wrapped in colorful aluminum foil, and consists of a roundbiscuit base covered with a dollop ofmarshmallow cream coated inchocolate.[83]
Milky is a popular dairy pudding that comes in chocolate, vanilla andmocha flavors with a layer of whipped cream on top.[84]
Chili-basedhot sauces are prominent in Israeli food, and are based on green or redchili peppers. They are served with appetizers,felafel, casseroles and grilled meats, and are blended withhummus andtahina. Although originating primarily from North African and Yemenite immigrants, these hot sauces are now widely consumed.[85]
Skhug is a spicy chili pepper sauce brought to Israel byYemenite Jews, and has become one of Israel's most popular condiments. It is added tofalafel andhummus and is also spread over fish, and to white cheese, eggs, salami or avocado sandwiches for extra heat and spice.[86]
Other hot sauces made from chili peppers and garlic are theTunisianharissa, and thefilfel chuma of theLibyan Jewish community in Israel.[87]
Amba is a pickled mango sauce, introduced by Iraqi Jews, and commonly used a condiment withshawarma,kebabs,meorav yerushalmi andfalafel and vegetable salads.[87]
Concentrated juices made of grape, carob, pomegranate and date are common in different regions, they are used at stews, soups or as a topping for desserts such asmalabi andrice pudding.
Almond syrup flavored withrose water or orange blossom water is a common flavor for desserts and sometimes added to cocktails such asarak.
Sumac, a dark red spice is made by grinding the dried berries of the sumac bush, which is native to the Middle East, into a coarse powder.[88]
There is a strongcoffee-drinking culture in Israel.[89]Coffee is prepared asinstant (nes),iced,latte (hafuḥ), Italian-styleespresso, orTurkish coffee, which is sometimes flavored withcardamom (hel).[49] Jewish writers, artists, and musicians from Germany and Austria who immigrated to Israel before theSecond World War introduced the model of theViennese coffee house with its traditional décor, relaxed atmosphere, coffee and pastries.[90]
Cafés are found everywhere in urban areas and function as meeting places for socializing and conducting business. Almost all serve baked goods and sandwiches and many also serve light meals. There are both chains and locally owned neighborhood cafés. Most have outdoor seating to take advantage of Israel'sMediterranean climate.Tel Aviv is particularly well known for its café culture.[91]
Tea is also a widely consumed beverage and is served at cafés and drunk at home. Tea is prepared in many ways, from plain brewed Russian and Turkish-style black tea with sugar, to tea with lemon or milk, and, available as a common option in most establishments, Middle Eastern-style withmint (nana).[92]Tea withrose water is also common.
Limonana, a type of lemonade made from freshly-squeezed lemons and mint, was invented in Israel in the early 1990s and has become a summer staple throughout theMiddle East.[93][94]
Rimonana is similar tolimonana, made ofpomegranate juice andmint.
Sahlab is a drinkable pudding once made of the powdered bulb of theorchid plant but today usually made with cornstarch. It is usually sold in markets or by street vendors, especially in the winter. It is topped withcinnamon and choppedpistachios.[95]
Malt beer, known as black beer (בִירָה שְחוֹרָה,bira shḥora), is a non-alcoholic beverage produced in Israel since pre-state times.Goldstar andMaccabi areIsraeli beers. Recently, some small boutique breweries began brewing new brands of beer, such as Dancing Camel,[96] Negev,[97] and Can'an.
Arak is a Levantine alcoholic spirit (~40–63% Alc. Vol./~80–126 proof) from the anis drinks family, common in Israel and throughout the Middle East. It is a clear, colorless, unsweetened anise-flavored distilled alcoholic drink (also labeled as anapéritif).
It is often served neat or mixed with ice and water, which creates a reaction turning the liquor a milky-white colour. It is sometimes also mixed with grapefruit juice to create a cocktail known asarak eshkoliyyot.
Other spirits, brandies, liquors can be found across the country in many villages and towns.
The vast majority of Israelis drink wine in moderation, and almost always at meals or social occasions. Israelis drink about 6.5 liters of wine per person per year, which is low compared to other wine-drinking Mediterranean countries, but the per capita amount has been increasing since the 1980s as Israeli production of high-quality wine grows to meet demand, especially ofsemi-dry and dry wines. In addition to Israeli wines, an increasing number of wines are imported from France, Italy, Australia, the United States, Chile and Argentina.[98]
Most of the wine produced and consumed from the 1880s was sweet,kosher wine when theCarmel Winery was established,[99] until the 1980s, when more dry or semi-dry wines began to be produced and consumed after the introduction of theGolan Heights Winery’s first vintage.[100] The winery was the first to focus on planting and making wines fromCabernet Sauvignon,Merlot,Sauvignon blanc,Chardonnay,Pinot noir, whiteRiesling andGewürztraminer. These wines are kosher and have won silver and gold medals in international competitions.[101]
Israeli wine is now produced by hundreds of wineries, ranging in size from small boutique wineries in the villages to large companies producing over 10 million bottles per year, which are also exported worldwide.
Wine made of fruits other than grapes such as fig, cherry, pomegranate, carob and date are also common in the country.
Foods variously prohibited in Jewish dietary laws (kashrut) and in Muslim dietary laws (halal) may also be included in pluralistic Israel's diverse cuisine. Although partly legally restricted,[102][103]pork andshellfish are available at many non-kosher restaurants (only around a third of Israeli restaurants have a kosher license[104]) and some stores all over the country which are widely spread, including by theMaadaney Mizra,Tiv Ta'am and Maadanei Mania[105] supermarket chains.[106]
Amodern Hebrew euphemism for pork is "white meat".[106] Despite Jewish and Muslimreligious restrictions on the consumption of pork, pigmeat consumption per capita was 2.7 kg (6.0 lb) in 2009.[107]
A 2008 survey reported that about half of Israeli Jews do not always observekashrut.[108] Israel's anomalous equanimity toward its religious dietary restrictions may be reflected by the fact that some of the Hebrew cookbooks ofYisrael Aharoni are published in two versions: kosher and non-kosher editions.
In Israel, as in many other Middle Eastern countries, "street food" is a kind of fast food that is sometimes literally eaten while standing in the street, while in some cases there are places to sit down. The following are some foods that are usually eaten in this way:
Falafel are fried balls or patties of spiced, mashedchickpeas orfava beans and are a common Middle-Eastern street food that have become identified with Israeli cuisine.Falafel is most often served in a pita, with pickles,tahina,hummus, cut vegetable salad and often,harif, a hot sauce, the type used depending on the origin of thefalafel maker.[12]
Variations include greenfalafel, which include parsley and coriander, redfalafel made withfilfel chuma, yellowfalafel made withturmeric, andfalafel coated withsesame seeds.[109]
Shawarma, (fromçevirme, meaning "rotating" in Turkish) is usually made in Israel with turkey, with lamb fat added. Theshawarma meat is sliced and marinated and then roasted on a huge rotating skewer.
The cooked meat is shaved off and stuffed into apita, withhummus andtahina, or with additional trimmings such as fresh or friedonion rings,French fries, salads and pickles. More upscale restaurant versions are served on an open flat bread, alafa, with steak strips, flame roasted eggplant and salads.[110]
Shakshouka, originally a workman's breakfast popularized by North-African Jews in Israel, is made simply of fried eggs in spicy tomato sauce, with other vegetable ingredients or sausage optional.
Shakshouka is typically served in the same frying pan in which it is cooked, with thick slices of white bread to mop up the sauce, and a side of salad. Modern variations include a milder version made with spinach and feta without tomato sauce, and hot-chilishakshouka, a version that includes both sweet and hot peppers and coriander.[111]Shakshouka in pita is calledshakshouka be-pita.[112]
Jerusalem mixed grill, orme'urav Yerushalmi, consists ofmixed grill of chickengiblets and lamb with onion, garlic and spices. It is one of Jerusalem's most popular and profitable street foods.[113] Although the origin of the dish is in Jerusalem, it is today common in all of the cities and towns inIsrael.
Jerusalem bagels, unlike the round, boiled and baked bagels popularized by Ashkenazi Jews, are long and oblong-shaped, made from bread dough, covered inza’atar orsesame seeds, and are soft, chewy and sweet. They have become a favorite snack forfootball match crowds, and are also served in hotels as well as at home.[114]
Malabi is a creamy pudding originating from Turkey prepared with milk or cream and cornstarch. It is sold as a street food from carts or stalls, in disposable cups with thick sweet syrup and various crunchy toppings such as chopped pistachios or coconut. Its popularity has resulted in supermarkets selling it in plastic packages and restaurants serving richer and more sophisticated versions using various toppings and garnishes such as berries and fruit.[81][82]Sahlab is a similar dessert made from the powdered tubers of orchids and milk.[81]
Sabikh is a traditionalsandwich thatMizrahi Jews introduced to Israel and is sold at kiosks throughout the country, but especially inRamat Gan, where it was first introduced.Sabiḥ is a pita filled with fried eggplant, hardboiled egg, salad,tehina and pickles.[115]
Tunisian sandwich is usually made from abaguette with various fillings that may include tuna, egg, pickled lemon, salad, and fried hot green pepper.[115]
There are thousands of restaurants, casual eateries, cafés and bars in Israel, offering a wide array of choices in food and culinary styles.[116][117] Places to eat out that are distinctly Israeli include the following:
Falafel stands or kiosks are common in every neighborhood.Falafel vendors compete to stand apart from their competitors and this leads to the offering of additional special extras like chips, deep-fried eggplant, salads and pickles for the price of a single portion offalafel.[109]
Ahummusia is an establishment that offers mainlyhummus with a limited selection of extras such astahina, hardboiled egg,falafel, onion, pickles, lemon and garlic sauce and pita ortaboon bread.[118]
Misada Mizrahit (literally "Eastern restaurant") refers toMizrahi Jewish, Middle-Eastern or Arabic restaurants. These popular and relatively inexpensive establishments often offer a selection ofmeze salads followed by grilled meat with a side offrench fries and a simple dessert such as chocolatemousse for dessert.[119]
Steakiyot are meat grills selling sit down and take-away chicken, turkey or lamb as steak,shishlik,kebab and evenJerusalem mixed grill, all in pita or intaboon bread.[120]
Friday night (eve ofShabbat) dinners are usually family and socially oriented meals. Along with family favorites, and varying to some extent according to ethnic background, traditional dishes are served, such aschallah bread, chicken soup, salads, chicken or meat dishes, and cakes or fruits for dessert.
Shabbat lunch is also an important social meal. Since antiquity, Jewish communities all over the world devised meat casseroles that begin cooking beforelighting of candles that marks the commencement of Shabbat on Friday night, so as to comply with religious regulations for observing Shabbat.
In modern Israel, this filling meal, in many variations, is still eaten on the Sabbath day, not only in religiously observant households, and is also served in some restaurants during the week.[121]
The basic ingredients are meat and beans or rice simmered overnight on ahotplate orblech, or placed in a slow oven. Ashkenazicholent usually contains meat, potatoes, barley and beans, and sometimeskishke, and seasonings such as pepper and paprika.
Sephardihamin contains chicken or meat, rice, beans, garlic, sweet or regular potatoes, seasonings such as turmeric and cinnamon, and whole eggs in the shell known ashaminados.[122][123]
Moroccan Jews prepare variations known asdafina orskhina (ors′hina) with meat, onion, marrow bones, potatoes, chickpeas, wheat berries, eggs and spices such as turmeric, cumin, paprika and pepper. Iraqi Jews preparetebit, using chicken and rice.[121][124]
For desserts or informal gatherings on Shabbat, home bakers still bake a wide variety of cakes on Fridays to be enjoyed on the Sabbath, or purchased from bakeries or stores, cakes such as sponge cake, citrus semolina cake, cinnamon or chocolatebabkas, and fruit and nut cakes.[67]
Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year, is widely celebrated with festive family meals andsymbolic foods. Sweetness is the main theme and the Rosh Hashana dinners typically begin with apples dipped in honey, and end with honey cake.
Thechallah is usually round, often studded with raisins and drizzled with honey, and other symbolic fruits and vegetables are eaten as an entree, such as pomegranates, carrots, leeks and beets.[125]
Fish dishes, symbolizing abundance, are served; for example,gefilte fish is traditional forAshkenazim, while Moroccan Jews prepare the spicy fish dish,chraime.
Honey cake (lekach) is often served as dessert, accompanied by tea or coffee.[125] Dishes cooked with pomegranate juice are common during this period.
The holiday ofHanukkah is marked by the consumption of traditionalHanukkah foods fried in oil in commemoration of the miracle in which a small quantity of oil sufficient for one day lasted eight days.
The two most popular Hannukah foods are potato pancakes,levivot, also known by the Yiddishlatkes; and jelly doughnuts, known assufganiyot in Hebrew,pontshkes (inYiddish) orbimuelos (inLadino), as these aredeep-fried in oil.[126]
Hannukah pancakes are made from a variety of ingredients, from the traditional potato or cheese, to more modern innovations, among them corn, spinach, zucchini and sweet potato.[125]
Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings forsufganiyot besides the standard strawberry jelly filling, and these include chocolate, vanilla or cappuccino cream, and others. In recent years downsized, "mini"sufganiyot have also appeared due to concerns about calories.[127]
Tu BiShvat is a minorJewish holiday, usually sometime in late January or early February, that marks the "New Year of the Trees". Customs include planting trees and eating dried fruits and nuts, especiallyfigs,dates,raisins,carob, andalmonds.[128]
Many Israelis, both religious and secular, celebrate with akabbalistic-inspiredTu BiShvat seder that includes a feast of fruits and four cups of wine according to the ceremony presented in specialhaggadot modeled on theHaggadah of Passover for this purpose.[129]
The festival ofPurim celebrates the deliverance of the Jewish people from the plot ofHaman to annihilate them in the ancient PersianAchaemenid Empire, as described in theBook of Esther.
It is a day of rejoicing and merriment, on which children, and many adults, wear costumes.[130] It is customary to eat a festive meal,seudat Purim,[131] in the late afternoon, often with wine as the prominent beverage, in keeping with the atmosphere of merry-making.[130]
Many people prepare packages of food that they give to neighbors, friends, family, and colleagues on Purim. These are calledmishloach manot ("sending of portions"), and often include wine and baked goods, fruit and nuts, and sweets.[130]
The food most associated with Purim is calledoznei haman ("Haman's ears"). These are three-cornered pastries filled most often with poppy seeds, but also other fillings. The triangular shape may have been influenced by old illustrations of Haman, in which he wore a three-cornered hat.[132]
The week-long holiday ofPassover in the spring commemorates theExodus from Egypt, and in Israel is usually a time for visiting friends and relatives, travelling, and on the first night of Passover, the traditional ritual dinner, known as theSeder.
Foods containingḥametz—leavening or yeast—may not be eaten during Passover. This means bread, pastries and certainfermented beverages, such as beer, cannot be consumed.Ashkenazim also do not eatlegumes, known askitniyot.
Over the centuries, Jewish cooks have developed dishes using alternative ingredients and this characterizes Passover food in Israel today.[133]
Chicken soup with matzah dumplings(kneidlach) is often a starter for the Seder meal among Israelis of all ethnic backgrounds.[133] Spring vegetables, such asasparagus andartichokes often accompany the meal.[133]
Restaurants in Israel have come up with creative alternatives toḥametz ingredients to create pasta, hamburger buns, pizza, and other fast foods inkosher-for-Passover versions by usingpotato starch and other non-standard ingredients.
After Passover, the celebration ofMimouna takes place, a tradition brought to Israel by the Jewish communities of North Africa. In the evening, a feast of fruit, confectionery and pastries is set out for neighbors and visitors to enjoy. Most notably, the first leaven after Passover, a thin crepe called amofletta, eaten with honey, syrup or jam, is served.[134] The occasion is celebrated the following day by outdoor picnics at which salads and barbecued meat feature prominently.
In the early summer, the Jewish harvest festival ofShavuot is celebrated. Shavuot marks the peak of the new grain harvest and the ripening of the first fruits, and is a time when milk was historically most abundant.
To celebrate this holiday, many types of dairy foods (milchig) are eaten. These include cheeses and yogurts, cheese-based pies and quiches calledpashtidot, cheeseblintzes, and cheesecake prepared with soft white cheese (gvina levana) or cream cheese.[135]
The labelling of the foodstuffs originating outside of Israel as "Israeli" has led to the charge ofcultural appropriation being raised by some critics.[136][137][138] A notable example that has been lamented by Palestinians, Lebanese and other Arab populations isfalafel,[6] which Israelis view as anational dish, despite it being of likely Egyptian origin.[139][140] Though never a specifically Jewish dish, it has been long been consumed bySyrian andEgyptian Jews,[141][142] and was adopted into the diet of earlyJewish immigrants to theJewish communities ofOttoman Syria.[6] As it is plant-based,Jewish dietary laws classify it aspareve and thus allow it to be eaten with both meat and dairy meals.[143] Palestinian-Jordanian academicJoseph Massad has characterized the celebration of falafel and other dishes of Arab origin in American and European restaurants as Israeli to be part of a broader trend of "colonial conquest".[144] The Lebanese Industrialists' Association has raised assertions ofcopyright infringement against Israel concerning falafel.[142][145][146]
