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The termsIslamic world andMuslim world commonly refer to theIslamic community, which is also known as theUmmah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs,politics, and laws of Islam[1] or to societies in which Islam is practiced.[2][3] In a moderngeopolitical sense, these terms refer tocountries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[4][3] The termMuslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense.[5]
Thehistory of the Muslim world spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology during theIslamic Golden Age.Muslims look for guidance to theQuran and believe in the prophetic mission of theIslamic prophetMuhammad, but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religiousschools of thought andsects within Islam.[6] TheIslamic conquests, which culminated in theCaliphate being established across three continents (Asia,Africa, andEurope), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings.[7] In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under Europeancolonial domination. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular as well as religious trends.[8]
As of 2013[update], the combinedGDP (nominal) of 50 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion.[9] As of 2016[update], they contributed 8% of the world's total.[10] In 2020, theEconomy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of world's GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world's GDP. Some OIC member countries -Ivory Coast,Guyana,Gabon,Mozambique,Nigeria,Suriname,Togo andUganda are not Muslim-majority.[11]
As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of the world population are Muslims.[12][13] By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in theMiddle East-North Africa (MENA),[14] 89% inCentral Asia,[15] 40% inSoutheast Asia,[16] 31% inSouth Asia,[17][18] 30% inSub-Saharan Africa,[19] 25% inAsia, 1.4% inOceania,[20][21] 6% inEurope,[22] and 1% inthe Americas.[23][24][25][26]
Most Muslims are of one of twodenominations:Sunni Islam (87–90%)[27] andShia (10–13%).[28] However, other denominations exist in pockets, such asIbadi (primarily inOman). Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiableIslamic schools and branches are known asnon-denominational Muslims.[29][30][31][32] About 13% of Muslims live inIndonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country;[33] 31% of Muslims live in South Asia,[34] the largest population of Muslims in the world;[35] 20% in the Middle East–North Africa,[36] where it is the dominant religion;[37] and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa andWest Africa (primarily inNigeria).[38] Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia,[39] make up half of theCaucasus,[40][41] and widespread in Southeast Asia.[42]India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries.[43]Pakistan,Bangladesh,Iran, andEgypt are home to the world’s second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations respectively. SizeableMuslim communities are also found in theAmericas,Russia,India,China, andEurope.[44][45][46] Islam is thefastest-growing major religion in the world partially due to their high birth rate,[47][48][49][50][51] according to the same study,religious switching has no impact on Muslim population, since the number of people whoembrace Islam and those wholeave Islam are roughly equal.[52] China has the third largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries, while Russia has the fifth largest Muslim population. Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa, while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia.
The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamicpropaganda.The Times describedPan-Islamism as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of theTripoli Campaign,Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions".[53]
In a moderngeopolitical sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer tocountries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[54][3] Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g.Egypt's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority.[55][56][57] Moreover, the idea of a uniform Muslim world is imagined. Emerging in popular discourse in the nineteenth century, imperialists used the term to emphasize the civilizational differences between east and west. In opposition to colonization some Muslims started using the term in attempts at providing a unified front against western imperialism.[58] Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature.[5]
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Thehistory of the Islamic faith as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610CE, when theIslamic prophetMuhammad, a native ofMecca, is believed by Muslims to have receivedthe first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message.[59] In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (nowMedina), where he was invited to establish anew constitution for the city under his leadership.[59] This migration, called theHijra, marks the first year of theIslamic calendar. By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous othertribes of Arabia.[59]
After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (theCaliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' orRashidun.[citation needed] Theconquests of theRashidun Caliphate helped tospread Islam beyond theArabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, theNear East, North Africa, southern Italy, and theIberian Peninsula, to thePyrenees. The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire ChristianByzantine Empire inAsia Minor during theArab–Byzantine wars, however. The succeedingUmayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges ofConstantinople in674–678 and717–718. Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivallingSunni andShia sects since thekilling of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in asuccession crisis that has never been resolved.[60] The followingFirst,Second andThird Fitnas and finally theAbbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since.[61]Ghaznavids' rule was succeeded by theGhurid Empire ofMuhammad of Ghor andGhiyath al-Din Muhammad, whose reigns under the leadership ofMuhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until theBengal, where South AsianIslamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms ofdawah and number of converts toIslam.[62][63][page needed]Qutb ud-Din Aibak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of theDelhi Sultanate,[64] a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperousIndo-Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers,Razia Sultana.[citation needed]Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of theAbbasids,Fatimids,Almoravids,Gao Empire,Seljukids,largest contiguousSonghai Empire (15th-16th centuries) ofSahel,West Africa, southernNorth Africa and westernCentral Africa which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge ofTimbuktu,Djenne,Oualata andGao,Ajuran,Adal and Warsangali inSomalia,Mughals in the Indian subcontinent (India,Bangladesh,Pakistan, etc.),Safavids inPersia andOttomans inAnatolia,Massina Empire,Sokoto Caliphate of northernNigeria,Toucouleur Empire, were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world.[citation needed] 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country.[citation needed] These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such assecularism,nationalism (especiallyArab nationalism andPan-Arabism, as opposed toPan-Islamism),socialism (see alsoArab socialism andsocialism in Iran), democracy (seeIslamic democracy),republicanism (see alsoIslamic republic),liberalism and progressivism,feminism,capitalism and more.[citation needed]
Scholars often use the termAge of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period theSafavid,Ottoman andMughal states. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developedfirearms, especiallycannon and small arms, to create their empires.[65] They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.[66] During the 17th–18th centuries, when theIndian subcontinent was ruled byMughal Empire's sixth rulerMuhammad Auranzgeb throughsharia andIslamic economics,[67][68] India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP.[69]
![Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Mughal Emperor Akbar's Siege of Ranthambore Fort in 1568.[70]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.jpg)
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"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."
The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like theMughal Empire, starting from the wealthyBengal Subah,Tipu Sultan'sKingdom of Mysore, theOttoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modernGreater Middle East, and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'.[71]
Beginning with the 15th century,colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.[72]
A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise ofPan-Islamism; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.[73][72]
The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.[74] Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries.
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In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.[72] The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describingPan-Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of theTripoli Campaign;Anglo-Russian action in Persia; and "Afghan Ambitions".[53]
A significant change in the Muslim world was thedefeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer andTurkish revolutionary statesmanMustafa Kemal Atatürk had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with theRepublic of Turkey, amodern,secular democracy[75] (seeAbolition of the Ottoman sultanate).[75] Thesecular values ofKemalist Turkey, whichseparated religion from the state with theabolition of the Caliphate in 1924,[75] have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence.[citation needed]
In the 21st century, after theSeptember 11 attacks (2001) coordinated by theWahhabiIslamist[76]terrorist group[77]Al-Qaeda[77][78][79][80] against the United States, scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secularEnlightenment principles.Muhammad Atta, one of the11 September hijackers, reportedly quoted from theQuran to allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to theummah, the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness ofjahiliyyah.[81]
BySayyid Qutb's definition ofIslam, the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modernjahliliyyah. His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, theScientific Revolution, "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character"was needed "to abolish the negative influences ofjahili life."[81]
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As the Muslim world came into contact withsecular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[82][83][84][failed verification] Turkey has been governed as asecular state since the reforms ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk.[85] By contrast, the 1979Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with anIslamic republic led by theAyatollah,Ruhollah Khomeini.[citation needed][86]
Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed bySharia law.[87] In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, calledschools of jurisprudence. TheAmman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized fourSunni schools (Hanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,Hanbali), twoShia schools (Ja'fari,Zaidi), theIbadi school, and theZahiri school.[88]
EightIslamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution.
The following nineteenMuslim-majoritystates have endorsed Islam as theirstate religion, and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare a separation of state and religion:
Twenty-twoSecular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.
Albania[89][115]
Azerbaijan[89][116]
Bosnia and Herzegovina[117]
Burkina Faso[89][118]
Chad[89][119]
Gambia[120][121]
Guinea[89][122]
Guinea-Bissau[123]
Indonesia[124][125]
Kazakhstan[89][126]
Kosovo[89][127]
Kyrgyzstan[89][128]
Mali[89][129]
Niger[130]
Nigeria[89]
Senegal[89][131]
Sierra Leone[132]
Sudan[133]
Syria[134]
Tajikistan[89][135]
Tunisia[136]
Turkey[89][137]
Turkmenistan[89][138]
Uzbekistan[89][139]According to thePew Research Center in 2015 there were 50Muslim-majority countries, which are shown in the Government and religion section above in the article.[141][142] Apart from these, large Muslim populations exist in some countries where Muslims are a minority, and their Muslim communities are larger than many Muslim-majority nations:[143]
India: 200 million Muslims (14.6%)[144]
Ethiopia: 34.7 million Muslims (31.3%)[145]
China: 25–40 million Muslims (2–3%)[146]
Tanzania: 19.4 million Muslims (35.2%)[147]
Russia: 14–20 million Muslims (10–14%)[148]
Ivory Coast: 12 million Muslims (42%)[149]
DR Congo: 10 million Muslims (15%)[150]
Philippines: 8–9 million Muslims (9–10%)
During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts andglobalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world incontemporary history.[152]
Islamism is a range ofreligious andpolitical ideological movements that believe thatIslam should influence political systems.[153] Its proponents believe Islam is innately political, and that Islam as a political system is superior tocommunism,liberal democracy,capitalism, and other alternatives in achieving a just, successful society.[154] The advocates of Islamism, also known as "al-Islamiyyun", are usually affiliated with Islamic institutions or social mobilization movements,[155] emphasizing the implementation ofsharia,[156]pan-Islamic political unity,[156] and the creation ofIslamic states.[157]
In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory,[158] purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into "social and political as well as personal life";[159] and in particular "reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam" (i.e. Sharia).[160][161][162][163] According to at least one observer (authorRobin Wright), Islamist movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders".[164] Another sole author (Graham E. Fuller) has argued for a broader notion of Islamism as a form ofidentity politics, involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community."[165]
Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism includeRashid Rida,[166]Hassan al-Banna (founder of theMuslim Brotherhood),Sayyid Qutb,Abul A'la Maududi,[167]Ruhollah Khomeini (founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran),Hassan Al-Turabi.[168]SyrianSunnicleric Muhammad Rashid Riḍā, a fervent opponent ofWesternization,Zionism andnationalism, advocated Sunni internationalism through revolutionary restoration of apan-IslamicCaliphate to politically unite theMuslim world.[169][170] Riḍā was a strong exponent of Islamic vanguardism, the belief thatMuslim community should be guided by clerical elites (ulema) who steered the efforts for religious education andIslamic revival.[171] Riḍā'sSalafi-Arabist synthesis and Islamist ideals greatly influenced his disciples like Hasan al-Banna,[172][173] anEgyptian schoolteacher who founded theMuslim Brotherhood movement, andHajji Amin al-Husayni, theanti-ZionistGrand Mufti of Jerusalem.[174] Al-Banna and Maududi called for a "reformist" strategy to re-Islamizing society throughgrassroots social and political activism.[175][176] Other Islamists (Al-Turabi) are proponents of a "revolutionary" strategy ofIslamizing society through exercise of state power,[175] or (Sayyid Qutb) for combining grassroots Islamization with armed revolution. The term has been applied to non-state reform movements, political parties, militias and revolutionary groups.[177]
Islamists themselves prefer terms such as "Islamic movement",[178] or "Islamic activism" to "Islamism", objecting to the insinuation that Islamism is anything other than Islam renewed and revived.[179] In public and academic contexts,[180] the term "Islamism" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping.[181]
Prominent Islamist groups and parties across the world include theMuslim Brotherhood, Turkey'sJustice and Development Party,Hamas, the AlgerianMovement of Society for Peace, the MalaysianNational Trust Party,Jamaat-e-Islami inBangladesh andPakistan and Bosnia'sParty of Democratic Action.[182] Following theArab Spring, manypost-Islamist currents became heavily involved in democratic politics,[164][183] while others spawned "the most aggressive and ambitious Islamistmilitia" to date, such as theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).[164] ISIL has been rejected as blasphemous by the majority of Islamists.[184]More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim, with an estimated total of approximately 1.9 billion.[185][186][187][188][189] Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,[190][191] they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city ofKarachi has the largest Muslim population in the world.[192][193]
Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically.[55][56][5] The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%.[55][5]
In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority.India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).[191] Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namelyEritrea,Ethiopia,Guinea-Bissau,Ivory Coast,Nigeria,North Macedonia, andTanzania.[5] As of 2024, however, Nigeria has become a Muslim-majority country.[194]
The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of theimam. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍShura (consultation), as was done atthe Saqifah which selectedAbu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-lawAli ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor.[195][better source needed]
The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni.[196] Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%,[197] Azerbaijan – 65%,[198] Iraq – 60%,[199] Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%,[200] Turkey – 10%,[201][202] Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%,[203][204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211] and India – 10%.[212]
Non-denominational Muslims make up a majority of the Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others):Albania (65%),Kyrgyzstan (64%),Kosovo (58%),Indonesia (56%),Mali (55%),Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%),Uzbekistan (54%),Azerbaijan (45%),Russia (45%), andNigeria (42%).[213] They are found primarily inCentral Asia.[213]Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population.[213]Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.[213]
TheKharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.[214]
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The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three majorsects:Sunnis,Shi'as andKharijites. Each sect developed distinctjurisprudence schools (madhhab) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (fiqh).
The major Sunni madhhabs areHanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i, andHanbali.[215]
The majorShi'a branches areTwelver (Imami),Ismaili (Sevener) andZaidi (Fiver).Isma'ilism later split intoNizari Ismaili andMusta’li Ismaili, and thenMustaali was divided intoHafizi andTaiyabi Ismailis.[216] It also gave rise to theQarmatian movement and theDruze faith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims.[217][218] Twelver Shiism developedJa'fari jurisprudence whose branches areAkhbarism andUsulism, and other movements such asAlawites,Shaykism[219] andAlevism.[220][221]
Similarly,Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches:Sufris,Azariqa,Najdat, Adjarites andIbadis.
Among these numerous branches, onlyHanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,Hanbali,Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-Usuli,Nizārī Ismā'īlī,Alevi,[222]Zaydi,Ibadi,Zahiri,Alawite,[citation needed]Druze andTaiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements likeQuranist Muslims andAhmadi Muslims later emerged independently.
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There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes,Christians,Jews,Hindus,Buddhists,Baháʼís,Druzes,Yazidis,Mandaeans,Yarsanis andZoroastrians.
The Muslim world is home to some of the world's mostancient Christian communities,[223] and some of the most important cities of theChristian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria,Antioch, andConstantinople).[224] Scholars and intellectuals agreeChristians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction ofIslam,[225][226] and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of theMiddle East and North Africa and other areas.[227][228][229]Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 millionChristians lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan.[230] While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt.[231]Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims.[232]
In 2018, theJewish Agency estimated that around 27,000Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries.[233][234]Jewish communities have existed across theMiddle East andNorth Africa since the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have beenreduced to a small fraction of theirformer sizes,[235] with the largest communities ofJews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500);[236] both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been.[237] Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Palestine with about 250,000 Jews, Morocco with about 2,000 Jews, and in Tunisia with about 1,000.[238] The number ofDruze worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in theLevant (primarily in Syria and Lebanon).[239]
In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeableHindu minorities. Malaysia (5 million) has the largestBuddhist population in the Muslim world.[191]Zoroastrians are the oldest remaining religious community inIran.[240]
![Nigeria has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world[241]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Cathedral_Marina.jpg)
![Palestine has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world[242]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHurva_Synagogue_07112018.jpg)
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The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies.Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest inMali,Afghanistan,Chad and other parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such asTurkey,Iran andEgypt have a high rate of citable scientific publications.[243][244]
In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.[245] In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.[246] Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.[247] In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,[248] but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.[249] Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate.[250]
A 2011Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% havinggraduate and post-graduate degrees.[251]The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found inUzbekistan (11.5),Kuwait (11.0) andKazakhstan (10.7).[251] In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).[251] In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).[251] The study found thatMuslims have a significant amount ofgender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.[251]
According to theUNHCR, Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.[citation needed]
Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, includingthe uprising in Syria.[252] In July 2013, the UN stated that the number ofSyrian refugees had exceeded 1.8 million.[253]In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border intoBangladesh since August 2017.[254]
Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.[255] According toM. M. Knight, this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include someprescriptive literature and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'.[256]
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The term "Islamic Golden Age" has been attributed to a period in history during whichscience, economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished.[257][258] The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of theAbbasid caliphHarun al-Rashid (786–809) with the inauguration of theHouse of Wisdom inBaghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic,[259][260] and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due toMongol invasions and theSiege of Baghdad in 1258.[261] The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad,Cairo, andCórdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.[262] During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancientGreek,Roman,Persian,Chinese,Vedic,Egyptian, andPhoenician civilizations.[263]
Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use ofceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaboratepottery.[264]Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware inBasra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development offritware, originating from 9th-century Iraq.[265] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world includedFustat (from 975 to 1075),Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) andTabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[266]
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![The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree.[267]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPrincess_Parizade_Bringing_Home_the_Singing_Tree.jpg)
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The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world isOne Thousand and One Nights, a compilation offolk tales fromSanskrit, Persian, and later Arabianfables. The concept had been influenced by a pre-Islamic Persian prototypeHezār Afsān (Thousand Fables) that relied on particularIndian elements.[268] It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[269] This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first byAntoine Galland.[270] Imitations were written, especially in France.[271] Various characters from this epic have themselves becomecultural icons inWestern culture, such asAladdin,Sinbad the Sailor andAli Baba.[citation needed]
An example ofArabic poetry andPersian poetry onromance isLayla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is atragic story of undying love.Ferdowsi'sShahnameh, the national epic ofGreater Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling ofPersian history.Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story.
Ibn Tufayl (Abubacer) andIbn al-Nafis were pioneers of thephilosophical novel.[citation needed] Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novelHayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response toAl-Ghazali'sThe Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novelTheologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail'sPhilosophus Autodidactus.[citation needed] Both of these narratives hadprotagonists (Hayy inPhilosophus Autodidactus and Kamil inTheologus Autodidactus) who wereautodidacticferal children living in seclusion on adesert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story inPhilosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting inTheologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest knowncoming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[272][273]
Theologus Autodidactus,[274][275] written by theArabianpolymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288),[276] deals with various science fiction elements such asspontaneous generation,futurology, theend of the world and doomsday,resurrection, and theafterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using thescientific knowledge ofbiology,astronomy,cosmology andgeology known in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science andIslamic philosophy.[277] Translations of Ibn Tufail'sPhilosophus Autodidactus appeared in Latin (1671), English (1708), German, and Dutch. These European-language translations may have later inspiredDaniel Defoe'sRobinson Crusoe[278] andRobert Boyle'sThe Aspiring Naturalist.[279]
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One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework ofIslamic culture."[280] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[280] ThePersian scholarIbn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbookThe Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wroteThe Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.[281]
Another figure from theIslamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.[282]
Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence onmodern philosophy wasIbn Tufail. His philosophical novel,Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin asPhilosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa,nature versus nurture,[283]condition of possibility,materialism,[284] andMolyneux's problem.[285] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel includeJohn Locke,[286]Gottfried Leibniz,[287]Melchisédech Thévenot,John Wallis,Christiaan Huygens,[288]George Keith,Robert Barclay, theQuakers,[289] andSamuel Hartlib.[279]
Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, whenMulla Sadra founded his school ofTranscendent theosophy and developed the concept ofexistentialism.[290]
Other influential Muslim philosophers includeIbn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer ofphenomenology and thephilosophy of science and a critic ofAristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept ofplace (topos);Al-Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn al-Nafis, a pioneer of the philosophical novel;Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder ofIlluminationist philosophy;Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer ofinductive logic; andIbn Khaldun, a pioneer in thephilosophy of history.[291]
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Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of theintromission theory of light.Jim Al-Khalili stated in 2009 that Ibn al-Haytham is 'often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".'[292]al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits.[293] Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanceddecagonalquasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[294]
Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects ofanatomy andphysiology: such as in the 15th-century Persian work byMansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitledTashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural,nervous andcirculatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory ofpulmonary circulation. Avicenna'sThe Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century.Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known asAbulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with hisKitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields ofpharmacology andpharmacy.[295]
Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world includeJābir ibn Hayyān,al-Farabi,Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi,Ibn al-Haytham,Al-Biruni,Avicenna,Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, andIbn Khaldun.[citation needed]
In technology, the Muslim world adoptedpapermaking from China.[296] The knowledge ofgunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries.[297]
Advances were made inirrigation and farming, using new technology such as thewindmill. Crops such asalmonds andcitrus fruit were brought to Europe throughal-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century.Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network oftrade routes in theMediterranean, along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such asVenice,Genoa andCatalonia (see also:Indo-Mediterranean). TheSilk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests ofTimur (Tamerlane) and the resurgence of theTimurid Renaissance include theMali Empire and theBengal Sultanate in particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".[298]
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses ofhydropower, and early industrial uses oftidal power andwind power.[299] The industrial uses ofwatermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including earlyfulling mills,gristmills,paper mills,hullers,sawmills,ship mills,stamp mills,steel mills,sugar mills,tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[296] Muslim engineers also inventedcrankshafts andwater turbines, employedgears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[300] Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven bymanual labour inancient times to bemechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on theIndustrial Revolution, particularly from theproto-industrialisedMughal Bengal andTipu Sultan's Kingdom, through the conquests of theEast India Company.[301]
The term "Islamic art andarchitecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[302][303]
Islamic architecture comprises thearchitectural styles ofbuildings associated withIslam. It encompasses bothsecular and religious styles from the earlyhistory of Islam to the present day. TheIslamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques, local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimesdifferent religious affiliations.[304][305]
Early Islamic architecture was influenced byRoman,Byzantine,Iranian, andMesopotamian architecture and all other lands which theearly Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries.[306][307][308][309][310] Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings and in thedecoration of surfaces withIslamic calligraphy,arabesques, andgeometric motifs.[311] New architectural elements likeminarets,muqarnas, andmultifoil arches were invented. Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture includemosques,madrasas,tombs,palaces,hammams (public baths),Sufi hospices (e.g.khanqahs orzawiyas),fountains andsabils, commercial buildings (e.g.caravanserais andbazaars), and militaryfortifications.[305]Islamic architecture |
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No Islamic visual images or depictions ofGod are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead toidolatry. Muslims describe God by thenames and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but onesura of the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Suchaniconism andiconoclasm[312] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology.
Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known asarabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found inpre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably theminiature style made famous inPersia and under theOttoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[313]Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolickufic andnaskh scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides ofminbars, and so on.[313]
Distinguishingmotifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect,fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns,piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[314] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of theDome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with theTaj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.[315]
Girih (Persian:گره, "knot", also writtengereh[316]) are decorativeIslamic geometric patterns used inarchitecture and handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form aninterlacedstrapwork pattern.
Girih decoration is believed to have been inspired bySyrian Roman knotwork patterns from the second century. However, its mathematical patterns, structured around multiple lines of symmetry, are based on innovations in mathematics that occurred in the Islamic world after the ninth century.[317] The earliestgirih dates from around 1000 CE, and the artform flourished until the 15th century.Girih patterns can be created in a variety of ways, including the traditionalstraightedge and compass construction; the construction of a grid of polygons; and the use of a set ofgirih tiles with lines drawn on them: the lines form the pattern. Patterns may be elaborated by the use of two levels of design, as at the 1453Darb-e Imam shrine. Square repeating units of known patterns can be copied astemplates, and historic pattern books may have been intended for use in this way.
The 15th centuryTopkapı Scroll explicitly shows girih patterns together with the tilings used to create them. A set of tiles consisting of a dart and a kite shape can be used to create aperiodicPenrose tilings, though there is no evidence that such a set was used in medieval times. Girih patterns have been used to decorate varied materials including stone screens, as atFatehpur Sikri; plasterwork, as atmosques andmadrasas such as theHunat Hatun Complex inKayseri; metal, as atMosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan inCairo; and in wood, as at theMosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.
Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice ofpenmanship andcalligraphy, in the languages which use theArabic alphabet or thealphabets derived from it. It is a highly stylized and structured form ofhandwriting that follows artistic conventions and is often used forIslamic religious texts,architecture, anddecoration.[318] It includesArabic,Persian,Ottoman, andUrdu calligraphy.[319][320] It is known inArabic askhatt Arabi (خط عربي), literally meaning "line", "design", or "construction".[321]
The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to theQur'an, as chapters and verses from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden in the Qur'an, Islamic traditions have often limited figural representation in Islamic religious texts in order to avoididolatry. Some scholars argue thatKufic script was developed by the late 7th century inKufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name. This early style later evolved into several forms, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square Kufic. In theancient world, though, artists sometimes circumventedaniconic prohibitions by creating intricate calligraphic compositions that formed shapes and figures using tiny script. Calligraphy was a valued art form, and was regarded as both an aesthetic and moral pursuit. An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that "purity of writing is purity of the soul."[322]
Beyond religious contexts, Islamic calligraphy is widely used in secular art, architecture, and decoration.[323] Its prominence inIslamic art is not solely due to religious constraints on figurative imagery, but rather reflects the central role of writing and the written word inIslamic culture.[324] Islamic calligraphy evolved primarily from two major styles:Kufic andNaskh, with numerous regional and stylistic variations. In themodern era, Arabic and Persian calligraphy have influencedmodern art, particularly in the post-colonial Middle East, and have also inspired the fusion style known ascalligraffiti.[325]
Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is thelunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims and known in the West as the "Islamic calendar". The other one is asolar calendar officially used inIran. Both measure time in theHijri era: the lunar calendar countslunar years (of twelvelunar months) and the solar calendar countssolar years.
The Hijri calendar (Arabic:ٱلتَّقْوِيم ٱلْهِجْرِيّ,romanized: al-taqwīm al-hijrī), also known in English as theIslamic calendar, is alunar calendar consisting of 12lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine the proper days ofIslamic holidays and rituals, such as theannual fasting and the annual season for thegreat pilgrimage. In almost all countries where the predominant religion is Islam, thecivil calendar is theGregorian calendar, withSyriac month-names used in theLevant and Mesopotamia (Iraq,Syria,Jordan,Lebanon andPalestine), but the religious calendar is the Hijri one.
This calendar enumerates theHijri era, whoseepoch was established as theIslamic New Year in 622CE.[326] During that year,Muhammad and his followers migrated fromMecca toMedina and established the first Muslim community (ummah), an event commemorated as theHijrah. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH (Latin:Anno Hegirae,lit. 'In the year of the Hijrah').[a] In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H[327] from its Arabic form (سَنَة هِجْرِيَّة, abbreviatedھ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are denoted as BH ("Before the Hijra").[328]
Since 26 June 2025 CE, the current Islamic year is 1447 AH. In theGregorian calendar reckoning, 1447 AH runs from 26 June 2025 to approximately 15 June 2026.[329][330][b]TheSolar Hijri calendar[c] is the official calendar ofIran. It is asolar calendar, based on the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each year begins on the day[d] of theMarch equinox and has years of 365 or 366 days. It is sometimes also called the Shamsi calendar, Khorshidi calendar or Persian calendar. It is abbreviated as SH, HS, AP, or, sometimes as AHSh, while thelunar Hijri calendar (commonly known in the West as the 'Islamic calendar') is usually abbreviated as AH.
Theepoch (very first day) of the Solar Hijri calendar was the day of the spring equinox, March 19, 622CE. The calendar is a "Hijri calendar" because that was the year thatMohammed is believed to have left fromMecca toMedina, which event is referred to as theHijrah.
Since the calendar uses astronomical observations and calculations for determining thevernal equinox, it theoretically has no intrinsic error in matching the vernal equinox year.[333][334][335][336] According to Iranian studies, it is older than the lunar Hijri calendar used by the majority ofMuslims (known in the West as theIslamic calendar); though they both count from the year of the Hijrah.[337][338] The solar Hijri calendar usessolar years and is calculated based on the "year of the Hijrah," and the lunar Hijri calendar is based onlunar months, and dates from the presumed actual "day of the Hijrah".
Each of the twelve months of the solar Hijri calendar corresponds with azodiac sign. In Iran before 1925 and inAfghanistan before 2023,[e] the names of the zodiacal signs were used for the months; elsewhere the month names are the same as in theZoroastrian calendar. The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in common years, 30 inleap years.
The ancient Iranian New Year's Day, which is calledNowruz, always falls on the March equinox. Nowruz is celebrated by communities in a wide range of countries from theBalkans toCentral Asia. Currently the Solar Hijri calendar is officially used only in Iran.According toRiada Asimovic Akyol, while Muslim women's experiences differ considerably by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education;[340] the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries.[340] The key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biologicalessentialism are still valued highly in Islam, hence views emphasizing on men's superiority in unequalgender roles are widespread among many conservative Muslims (men and women).[340] Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different from that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God.[340] According toAsma Barlas, patriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality.Modernist discourse ofliberal progressive movements likeIslamic feminism have been revisitinghermeneutics of feminism in Islam in terms of respect for Muslim women's lives and rights.[340]Riada Asimovic Akyol further says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self-criticism.[340]
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The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (OEIW) deals with all aspects of Islam—the world's second largest and fastest-growing religion—and the societies in which it exists, including their religion, politics, economics, everyday life, culture, and thought
The Islamic world is generally defined contemporaneously as consisting of nation-states whose population contains a majority of Muslims. [...] in the contemporary era, the termIslamic world now includes not only the traditional heartlands of Islam, but also Europe and North America, both of which have sizeable minority Muslim populations
Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.
Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
Sunni Islam accounts for over 85% of the world's Muslim population...
In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi.
The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 15% of the world's Muslim population.
Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 150 million followers who comprise around 10% of all Muslims worldwide...
The majority of the world's Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 85 percent of the Islamic population; the other 10 to 15 percent is Shia.
Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgmental.
Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as anon-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.
Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, morenondenominational Muslims
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)This growth has to do with the relatively young age of the Muslim population as well as high fertility rates.
Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant ofJudaism andChristianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions, while modifying some and rejecting others.
there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith
21 ambassadors from Muslim – so-called "Muslim states". How do they dare to call themselves "Muslim"? In what sense is Egypt a "Muslim" country? You can't denominate a country as religious.: 4:35
"Many people, including myself, are often guilty of using terms such as 'Muslim countries', or the 'Islamic world', as if Islam has always been there, and always will be. And that is completely unclear. (...) If the current trend [of apostasy] continues, at some point a large section of the population may no longer be religious. How 'Islamic' would that still make the 'Islamic world'?
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)The constitution also states there shall be a "just and equitable balance" in the apportionment of cabinet and high-level civil service positions among the major religious groups, a provision amended by the Taif Agreement, which ended the country's civil war and mandated proportional representation between Christians and Muslims in parliament, the cabinet, and other senior government positions.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Islamism is one of many sociopolitical concepts continuously contested in scholarly literature. It is a neologism debated in both Muslim and non-Muslim public and academic contexts. The term "Islamism" at the very least represents a form of social and political activism, grounded in an idea that public and political life should be guided by a set of Islamic principles. In other words, Islamists are those who believe that Islam has an important role to play in organizing a Muslim-majority society and who seek to implement this belief.
The term "Islamism/Islamist" has come into increasing use in recent years to denote the views of those Muslims who claim that Islam, or more specifically, the Islamic sharīʿah, provides guidance for all areas of human life, individual and social, and who therefore call for an "Islamic State" or an "Islamic Order." [...] Today it is one of the recognized alternatives to "fundamentalist", along with "political Islam" in particular. [...] Current terminology usually distinguishes between "Islam," [...] and "Islamism", referring to the ideology of those who tend to signal openly, in politics, their Muslim religion. [...] the term has often acquired a quasi-criminal connotation close to that of political extremism, religious sectarianism, or bigotry. In Western mainstream media, "Islamists" are those who want to establish, preferably through violent means, an "Islamic state" or impose sharīʿah (Islamic religious law)—goals that are often perceived merely as a series of violations of human rights or the rights of women. In the Muslim world, insiders use the term as a positive reference. In the academic sphere, although it is still debated, the term designates a more complex phenomenon.
... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ...
Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan, the second-largest city in the world when "city" is defined by official municipal limits, the largest city in the Muslim world, and the world's seventh-largest metropolitan area.
Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.3 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 97 percent are Sunni and 3 percent Shia.
On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not.
Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between 10 and 15 percent are Shias, mostly Twelvers.
The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunni, with a Shi'a minority ranging between 10 to 15 percent.
Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..
Christian contributions to art, culture, and literature in the Arab-Islamic world; Christian contributions education and social advancement in the region.
There are some 30 million Christians who live in countries with Muslim majorities. The largest number live in Indonesia, some 15 million ...
Today Turkish Jewry remains the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world.
Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.
The Cure...had momentous consequences...his philosophical system dominated intellectual history in both Shi'ite and most of Sunni Islam
Although Syria remained the center of the Islamic empire for less than 90 years, its role in the development of Islamic architecture was crucial. The region's own ancient civilization, unified and transformed by Hellenization and overlaid with Roman and Christian elements, provided the basis for the new architectural style. The forms and conventions of Classical architecture were better understood in Syria than in the lands further east, and as a result some of the vocabulary of Umayyad architecture—of column and capital, pointed arch and dome, rib and vault—is familiar to a Western observer. These traditions declined in importance, however, as Muslim builders began to adopt the architectural styles of the newly conquered lands to the east—in Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia and even India. (...) The Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, founded in 749, ruled most of the Islamic lands from capital cities in Iraq during a golden age that lasted at least until the end of the 9th century. New styles of architecture were characterized by forms, techniques and motifs of Iraqi and Iranian origin. Some features of these styles, such as brick vaults and stucco renderings, had already appeared in buildings erected late in the Umayyad period (661–c. 750; see §III above), but they became increasingly widespread as a result of the power and prestige of the Abbasid court. In the Islamic lands around the Mediterranean, Late Antique traditions of stone construction roofed with wood continued, although new techniques and styles were eventually introduced from Iraq.
At this stage of scholarly knowledge, however, it is probably fair to say that Islam's Arabian past, essential for understanding the faith and its practices, and the Arabic language and its literature, is not as important for the forms used by Islamic art as the immensely richer world, from the Atlantic Ocean to Central Asia, taken over by Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. Even later, after centuries of independent growth, new conquests in Anatolia or India continued to bring new local themes and ideas into the mainstream of Islamic art.
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