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Islamic cultures orMuslim cultures refers to the historic cultural practices that developed among the various peoples living in theMuslim world. These practices, while not always religious in nature, are generally influenced by aspects ofIslam, particularly due to the religion serving as an effective conduit for the inter-mingling of people from different ethnic/national backgrounds in a way thatenabled their cultures to come together on the basis of a commonMuslim identity. The earliest forms of Muslim culture, from theRashidun Caliphate to theUmayyad Caliphate and earlyAbbasid Caliphate, was predominantly based on the existing cultural practices of theArabs, theByzantines, and thePersians. However, as theIslamic empires expanded rapidly, Muslim culture was further influenced and assimilated much from theIranic,Pakistani,Bangladeshi,Indian,Caucasian,Turkic,Malay,Somali,Berber, andIndonesian cultures.
Owing to a variety of factors, there arevariations in the application of Islamic beliefs in different cultures and traditions.[1]
Arabic literature (Arabic:الأدب العربي /ALA-LC:al-Adab al-'Arabī) is the writing, bothprose andpoetry, produced by writers in theArabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is"Adab", which is derived from a meaning ofetiquette, and which implies politeness, culture and enrichment.
Arabic literature emerged in the 5th century with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. TheQur'an, (the holy book of Islam) widely regarded by people as the finest piece of literature in theArabic language,[2] would have the greatest lasting effect onArabic culture and its literature. Arabic literature flourished during theIslamic Golden Age, but has remained vibrant to the present day, with poets and prose-writers across the Arab world, as well as rest of the world, achieving increasing success.
Persian literature comprises oral compositions and written texts inWestern Iranian languages, particularlyMiddle andNew Persian, and it is one of the world's oldestliteratures.[3][4][5] It spans over two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been withinGreater Iran including present-dayIran,Iraq,Syria,Afghanistan, theCaucasus, andTurkey, regions ofCentral Asia such asTajikistan, andSouth Asia, where Persian has historically been either the native or official language. For instance,Rumi, one of the best-loved Persian poets, was born inBalkh (in what is now Afghanistan) orVakhsh (in what is now Tajikistan), wrote in Persian, and lived inKonya, then the capital of theSeljuks in Anatolia. TheGhaznavids conquered large territories in Central andSouth Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. There is thus Persian literature from Iran, Mesopotamia,Azerbaijan, the widerTranscaucasus, Anatolia, western parts ofPakistan,Bangladesh, India, Tajikistan and other parts of Central Asia.
Not all Persian literature is written in Persian; works written by ethnicPersians in other languages, such asGreek andArabic, are sometimes included. At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians; Turkic, Caucasian, and Indian poets and writers have also used the Persian language in the environment of Persianate societies.
Described as one of the great literatures of humanity,[6] includingGoethe's assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature,[7] Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of Middle andOld Persian, the latter of which date back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest survivingAchaemenid inscription, theBehistun Inscription. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following theMuslim conquest of Persiac. 650. After theAbbasid Caliphate came to power in 750, Persians became its scribes and bureaucrats and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished inKhorasan andTransoxiana because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties such as theTahirids andSamanids being based in Khorasan.[8]
Persian poets such asFerdowsi,Saadi Shirazi,Hafiz Shirazi,Attar of Nishapur,Nizami Ganjavi,[9]Rumi[10] andOmar Khayyam are also known in the West and have influenced the literature of many countries.
For a thousand years, since the invasion of India by theGhaznavids, the Persian–Islamic culture of the eastern half of the Islamic world started to influence the Indian culture. Persian was the official language of most Indian empires such as theGhaznavids, theDelhi Sultanate, theBengal Sultanate, theDeccan Sultanates (such as theQutb Shahi dynasty) and theMughal Empire. Persian artistic forms in literature and poetry such asghazals have come to significantly affectUrdu and other Indian literature.More Persian literature was produced in India than in the Iranian world. As late as the 20th century,Allama Iqbal chose Persian for some of his major poetic works. The first Persian language newspaper was also published in India, given that printing machines were first implemented in India.
InBengal, Muslim writers were exploring different themes through Islamic narratives and epics such as culture, cosmology, love and history. Starting fromShah Muhammad Saghir in the 14th century, Muslim writers began to enrich the Bengali language for over 600 years, often being actively supported and promoted by the rulers themselves.[11] The early 20th century brought a new era for Bengali Islamic literature, with its most notable poetKazi Nazrul Islam espousing intense rebellion against colonialism and oppression, in addition to writing a highly acclaimed collection of Bengalighazals.Sultana's Dream byBegum Rokeya, anIslamic feminist, is one earliest works offeminist science fiction.UNESCO decided to observe 21 February asInternational Mother Language Day.[12] The UNESCO General Conference took the decision that took effect on 17 November 1999,[13]
From the 11th century, there was a growing body of Islamic literature in theTurkic languages. However, for centuries to come the official language in Turkish-speaking areas would remain Persian. In Anatolia, with the advent of the Seljuks, the practise and usage of Persian in the region would be strongly revived. A branch of theSeljuks, theSultanate of Rum, took Persian language, art and letters to Anatolia.[14] They adopted Persian language as theofficial language of the empire.[15] TheOttomans, which can "roughly" be seen as their eventual successors, took this tradition over. Persian was the official court language of the empire, and for some time, the official language of the empire,[16] though the lingua franca amongst common people from the 15th/16th century would become Turkish as well as having laid an active "foundation" for the Turkic language as early as the 4th century (seeTurkification). After a period of several centuries,Ottoman Turkish had developed towards a fully accepted language of literature, which was even able to satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation.[17] However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%.[17] However, Turkish was proclaimed the official language of theKaramanids in the 17th century, though it did not manage to become the official language in a wider area or larger empire until the advent of the Ottomans. With the establishment of theOttoman Empire,Ottoman Turkish grew in importance in both poetry and prose becoming, by the beginning of the 18th century, the official language of the Empire. Unlike India, where Persian remained the official and principal literary language of both Muslim and Hindu states until the 19th century.
PublicIslamic art is traditionally non-representational, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spirallingarabesque. These are often combined withIslamic calligraphy,geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling on the outside and inside of large buildings, includingmosques. However, there is a long tradition inIslamic art of the depiction of human and animal figures, especially in painting and small anonymousrelief figures as part of a decorative scheme. Almost allPersian miniatures (as opposed to decorativeilluminations) include figures, often in large numbers, as do their equivalents in Arab, Mughal andOttoman miniatures. But miniatures in books ormuraqqa albums were private works owned by the elite. Larger figures inmonumental sculpture are exceptionally rare until recent times, andportraiture showing realistic representations of individuals (and animals) did not develop until the late 16th century in miniature painting, especiallyMughal miniatures. Manuscripts of the Qur'an and other sacred texts have always been strictly kept free of such figures, but there is a long tradition of thedepiction of Muhammad and other religious figures in books of history and poetry; since the 20th century Muhammad has mostly been shown as though wearing a veil hiding his face, and many earlier miniatures were overpainted to use this convention.[18]
Some interpretations of Islam include a ban of depiction of animate beings, also known as aniconism. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that creation of living forms is God's prerogative. Although theQuran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of any living being, it uses the wordmusawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus ofhadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophetMuhammad) contains more explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on theDay of Judgment.[19][20] Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in different ways in different times and places. ReligiousIslamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use ofcalligraphic,geometric andabstract floral patterns. However, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face concealed) and other religious figures are found in some manuscripts from lands to the east of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images as forbidden.[19] In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs.[20]
Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice ofhandwriting andcalligraphy, based upon thealphabet in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. It includesArabic Calligraphy,Ottoman, andPersian calligraphy.[21][22] It is known inArabic askhatt Islami (خط اسلامي), meaning Islamic line, design, or construction.[23]
The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to theQur'an; chapters and excerpts from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. Like allIslamic art, it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts.[24] The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam.[25] Muhammad is said to have said: "The first thing God created was the pen."[26]
Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles:Kufic andNaskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Islamic calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style ofcalligraffiti.
Islamic architecture is the range ofarchitectural styles ofbuildings associated withIslam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the earlyhistory of Islam to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced byRoman,Byzantine,Persian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[27][28] Further east, it was also influenced byChinese andIndian architecture as Islam spread to theSoutheast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces withIslamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: theMosque, theTomb, thePalace and theFort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such aspublic baths,fountains and domestic architecture.[29][30]
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![The Great Mosque of Kairouan also called the Mosque of Uqba is at the same time the oldest mosque in North Africa (founded in 670 and still used as a place of worship) and one of the most important monuments of Islamic civilisation,[31][32] situated in Kairouan, Tunisia.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKairouan_Mosque_Courtyard.jpg)
Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque built byMuhammad inMedina, as well as from other pre-Islamic features adapted from churches and synagogues.
Theatre is generally considered permitted in Islam.[35] The most popular forms of theatre in themedieval Islamic world werepuppet theatre (which included hand puppets,shadow plays andmarionette productions) and livepassion plays known asta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes fromMuslim history. In particular,Shia Islamicplays revolved around theshaheed (martyrdom) ofAli's sonsHasan ibn Ali andHusayn ibn Ali. Live secular plays were known asakhraja, recorded in medievaladab literature, though they were less common than puppetry andta'zieh theatre.[36]
One of the oldest, and most enduring, forms of puppet theatre is theWayang ofIndonesia. Although it narrates primarily pre-Islamic legends, it is also an important stage for Islamic epics such as the adventures of Amir Hamzah (pictured). Islamic Wayang is known asWayang Sadat orWayang Menak.
Karagoz, the Turkish Shadow Theatre has influenced puppetry widely in the region. It is thought to have passed fromChina by way ofIndia. Later it was taken by theMongols from the Chinese and transmitted to the Turkish peoples of Central Russia. Thus the art of Shadow Theatre was brought toAnatolia by the Turkish people emigrating from Central Asia. Other scholars claim that shadow theatre came to Anatolia in the 16th century fromEgypt. The advocates of this view claim that when Yavuz Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517, he saw shadow theatre performed during an extacy party put on in his honour.Yavuz Sultan Selim was so impressed with it that he took the puppeteer back to his palace in Istanbul. There his 47-year-old son, later SultanSuleyman the Magnificent, developed an interest in the plays and watched them a great deal. Thus shadow theatre found its way into the Ottoman palaces.[37]
In other areas the style of shadow puppetry known askhayal al-zill – an intentionally metaphorical term whose meaning is best translated as 'shadows of the imagination' or 'shadow of fancy' survives. This is a shadow play with live music .."the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also..."special effects" – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience"[38]
InIran puppets are known to have existed much earlier than 1000, but initially only glove and string puppets were popular in Iran.[39] Other genres of puppetry emerged during theQajar era (18th–19th century) as influences from Turkey spread to the region.Kheimeh Shab-Bazi is a Persian traditional puppet show which is performed in a small chamber by a musical performer and astoryteller called amorshed ornaghal. These shows often take place alongside storytelling in traditional tea and coffee-houses (Ghahve-Khave). The dialogue takes place between the morshed and the puppets. Puppetry remains very popular in Iran, the touring operaRostam and Sohrab puppet opera being a recent example.
TheRoyal Opera House inMuscat, Oman. It is considered to be the first opera house linking Islamic culture with classical music.
Following theindependence of Pakistan in 1947, religion-based nationalism was strong and affected the theatre in both wings of the country. InEast Pakistan (modern-dayBangladesh), playwrights emerged such as Ibrahim Khan (1894–1978), Ibrahim Khalil (b. 1916), Akbar ad-Din (1895–1978) and others. These playwrights would create plays related to the Islamic history ofthe subcontinent and Middle East, glorifying past Muslim rulers as well as the history of thePakistan Movement.[40]
Some scholars of Islamicfiqh pronounced gender based rulings on dance, making it permissible for women within a female only environment, as is often performed at celebrations,[41] but discouraging men to engage in it.[42] Other classical authorities includingAl-Ghazzali andAl-Nawawi allow it without this distinction, but criticised dancing which is "languid" or excites carnal lusts.[43][44]
Most of the religious orders (tariqa) which dominate traditional Muslim religious life practice ritualised forms of dance in the context ofdhikr ceremonies.Dhikr, "recollection" (of God) is a meditative form of worship different from ritual prayer where the seeker focuses all of his senses and thoughts on God in the hope of attainingmaarifat (experiential knowledge of God) and triggering mystic states within him- or herself.Dhikr can be performed individually or with like-minded followers under the direction of asheikh, and can involve silent meditation or repetition and visualisation of sacred words such as the99 names of God or Quranic phrases, and may be done at rest or with rhythmic movements and controlling one's breath. Traditional Islamic orders have developed varieddhikr exercises including sometimes highly elaborate ritual dances accompanied by Sufi poetry and classical music.
Al-Ghazzali discussed the use of music and dancing indhikr and the mystical states it induces in worshippers, as well as regulating the etiquette attached to these ceremonies, in his short treatise on Islamic spiritualityThe Alchemy of Happiness and in his highly influential workThe Revival of the Religious Sciences. Al-Ghazzali emphasized how the practices of music and dance are beneficial to religious seekers, as long as their hearts are pure before engaging in these practices.[45]
Notable examples include theMevlevi Order founded byJalaluddin Rumi, which was the main Sunni order of theOttoman Empire, and itssama ritual (known in the West as "thewhirling dervishes").[46] The Mevlevi order, its rituals and Ottoman classical music has been banned inTurkey through much of the 20th century as part of the country's drive towards secular "modernisation", and the order's properties have been expropriated and the country's mosques put out of its control, which has radically diminished its influence in modern Turkey. In 2008,UNESCO confirmed the "Mevlevi Sama Ceremony" ofTurkey as one of theMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity,[47] and the practice is now regaining interest.
InEgypt and theLevant, the Mevlevi form ofsama is known astannoura and has been adopted (with some modifications) by other Sufi orders as well.
TheChishti order, traditionally the dominant Islamic institution inAfghanistan and theIndian subcontinent and the most ancient of the major Sufi orders, also practices forms ofsama similar to the Mevlevis, as well as other forms of devotional dance. The order is strongly associated with the development ofHindustani classical music and semi-classical devotional genres such asqawwali through famed pioneer figures such asAmir Khusrow. The Chishti order remains one of the largest and strongest Muslim religious orders in the world by far, retaining a vast influence on the spirituality and culture of around 500 million Muslims living in the Indian subcontinent.
Other examples of devotional dance are found in theMaghreb where it is associated withgnawa music, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia. TheNaqshbandi order, predominant amongIran's Sunni minority, is a notable exception in that they do not use music and dancing in the context ofdhikr.
In addition to these strictly religious forms of dance, colourful dancing processions traditionally take place in Muslim communities during weddings and public celebrations such asMawlid,Eid el-Adha, and so on. Many Islamic cultures have also developed classical forms of dance in the context for instance ofMughal,Ottoman,Persian andJavanese court cultures, as well as innumerable local folk and tribal dances (for instance amongstBedouin,Tuareg andPashto peoples), and other forms of dance used for entertainment or sometimes healing such as belly dancing (principally associated with Egyptian culture).
Althoughtariqas and their rituals have been an omnipresent part of Muslim life for most of Islam's history and were largely responsible for the spread of Islam throughout the world, their following and influence has sharply declined since the late 19th century, having been vigorously opposed and combated in turns by theFrench andBritish colonial administrations and by Muslim modernists and secularists likeKemal Atatürk, and in recent decades have been the target of vocal opposition by the fundamentalistWahhabi sect promoted bySaudi Arabia (where most of the heritage associated withSufism andtariqa was physically destroyed by the state in the 1930s). Wahhabi militant groups such asISIS and theTaliban are repeatedly targetingdhikr ceremonies in terrorist attacks, notably inEgypt andPakistan.[48][49]
Many Muslims are very familiar to listening to music.The classic heartland ofIslam isArabia as well as other parts of theMiddle East,North Africa andCentral Asia. BecauseIslam is a multicultural religion, the musical expression of its adherents is diverse.
TheSeljuk Turks, a nomadic tribe that converted to Islam, conqueredAnatolia (nowTurkey), and held theCaliphate as theOttoman Empire, also had a strong influence on Islamic music. SeeTurkish classical music.
Sub-SaharanAfrica,India, and theMalay Archipelago also have large Muslim populations, but these areas have had less influence than the heartland on the various traditions of Islamic music. ForSouth India, see:Mappila Songs,Duff Muttu.
All these regions were connected by trade long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century and later, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can only speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a great influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs, and facilitated trade between distant lands. Certainly theSufis, brotherhoods of Muslimmystics, spread their music far and wide.
Alauddin Khan,Ali Akbar Khan, andGul Mohammad Khan were notableBengali Muslim exponents ofclassical music andRuna Laila became widely acclaimed for her musical talents across South Asia in the field of modern music .[50]Nazrul Sangeet is the collection of 4,000 songs andghazals written byKazi Nazrul Islam. See articles onJari gan,O Mon Romzaner Oi Rozar Sheshe,Bhawaiya andBhatiyali.
See articles onEid ul-Fitr,Eid ul-Adha,Ashurah (see alsoHosay andTabuik),Mawlid,Lailat al Miraj andShab-e-baraat.
In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies. Immediately after the birth, the words ofAdhan is pronounced in the right ear of the child.[51] In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed, in which an animal is slaughtered and its meat is distributed among the poor.[52] The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor.[52] Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children.[53]Marriage, which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[54] With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.[55]
Certain religious rites are performed during and after thedeath of a Muslim. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce theShahada as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is appropriately bathed by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment calledkafan.[56] Placing the body on abier, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial.
Many practices fall in the category ofadab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu 'alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), sayingbismillah ("inthe name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking.Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health.Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam.Islamic burial rituals include saying theSalat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in agrave.
Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood,carrion, andalcohol. All meat must come from aherbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known ashalal food. It is indicated in these verses of Quran, guidelines for Muslims about the consumption of meat:[57]
He has only forbidden you ˹to eat˺ carrion, blood, swine, and what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
— Quran (An-Nahl, Verse 115)
Tell them (O Muhammad!): 'I do not find in what has been revealed to me anything forbidden for anyone who wants to eat unless it is carrion, outpoured blood and the flesh of swine, all of which is unclean; or that which is profane having been slaughtered in a name other than that of Allah. But whosoever is constrained to it by necessity – this – neither desiring to disobey nor exceeding the limit of necessity – your Lord is surely All Forgiving, All-Compassionate.
— Quran (Al An'am, Verse 145)
Forbidden to you is that which dies of itself, and blood, and flesh of swine, and that on which any other name than that of Allah has been invoked, and the strangled (animal) and that beaten to death, and that killed by a fall and that killed by being smitten with the horn, and that which wild beasts have eaten, except what you slaughter, and what is sacrificed on stones set up (for idols) and that you divide by the arrows; that is a transgression. This day have those who disbelieve despaired of your religion, so fear them not, and fear Me. This day have I perfected for you your religion and completed My favor on you and chosen for you Islam as a religion; but whoever is compelled by hunger, not inclining willfully to sin, then surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.
— Quran (Al-Maidah, Verse 3)
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